5 Expressions [expr]

A literal is a primary expression. Its type depends on its form ([lex.literal]). A string literal is an lvalue; all other literals are prvalues.

The keyword this names a pointer to the object for which a non-static member function ([class.this]) is invoked or a non-static data member's initializer ([class.mem]) is evaluated.

If a declaration declares a member function or member function template of a class X, the expression this is a prvalue of type “pointer to cv-qualifier-seq X” between the optional cv-qualifer-seq and the end of the function-definition, member-declarator, or declarator. It shall not appear before the optional cv-qualifier-seq and it shall not appear within the declaration of a static member function (although its type and value category are defined within a static member function as they are within a non-static member function). [ Note: this is because declaration matching does not occur until the complete declarator is known.  — end note ] Unlike the object expression in other contexts, *this is not required to be of complete type for purposes of class member access ([expr.ref]) outside the member function body. [ Note: only class members declared prior to the declaration are visible.  — end note ] [ Example:

struct A {
  char g();
  template<class T> auto f(T t) -> decltype(t + g())
    { return t + g(); }
};
template auto A::f(int t) -> decltype(t + g());

 — end example ]

Otherwise, if a member-declarator declares a non-static data member ([class.mem]) of a class X, the expression this is a prvalue of type “pointer to X” within the optional brace-or-equal-initializer. It shall not appear elsewhere in the member-declarator.

The expression this shall not appear in any other context. [ Example:

class Outer {
  int a[sizeof(*this)];               // error: not inside a member function
  unsigned int sz = sizeof(*this);    // OK: in brace-or-equal-initializer

  void f() {
    int b[sizeof(*this)];             // OK

    struct Inner {
      int c[sizeof(*this)];           // error: not inside a member function of Inner
    };
  }
};

 — end example ]

A parenthesized expression is a primary expression whose type and value are identical to those of the enclosed expression. The presence of parentheses does not affect whether the expression is an lvalue. The parenthesized expression can be used in exactly the same contexts as those where the enclosed expression can be used, and with the same meaning, except as otherwise indicated.

An id-expression is a restricted form of a primary-expression. [ Note: an id-expression can appear after . and -> operators ([expr.ref]).  — end note ]

An identifier is an id-expression provided it has been suitably declared (Clause [dcl.dcl]). [ Note: for operator-function-ids, see [over.oper]; for conversion-function-ids, see [class.conv.fct]; for literal-operator-ids, see [over.literal]; for template-ids, see [temp.names]. A class-name or decltype-specifier prefixed by ~ denotes a destructor; see [class.dtor]. Within the definition of a non-static member function, an identifier that names a non-static member is transformed to a class member access expression ([class.mfct.non-static]).  — end note ] The type of the expression is the type of the identifier. The result is the entity denoted by the identifier. The result is an lvalue if the entity is a function, variable, or data member and a prvalue otherwise.

qualified-id:
    nested-name-specifier templateopt unqualified-id

nested-name-specifier:
    ::
    type-name ::
    namespace-name ::
    decltype-specifier ::
    nested-name-specifier identifier ::
    nested-name-specifier templateopt simple-template-id ::

The type denoted by a decltype-specifier in a nested-name-specifier shall be a class or enumeration type.

A nested-name-specifier that denotes a class, optionally followed by the keyword template ([temp.names]), and then followed by the name of a member of either that class ([class.mem]) or one of its base classes (Clause [class.derived]), is a qualified-id; [class.qual] describes name lookup for class members that appear in qualified-ids. The result is the member. The type of the result is the type of the member. The result is an lvalue if the member is a static member function or a data member and a prvalue otherwise. [ Note: a class member can be referred to using a qualified-id at any point in its potential scope ([basic.scope.class]).  — end note ] Where class-name ::~ class-name is used, the two class-names shall refer to the same class; this notation names the destructor ([class.dtor]). The form ~ decltype-specifier also denotes the destructor, but it shall not be used as the unqualified-id in a qualified-id. [ Note: a typedef-name that names a class is a class-name ([class.name]).  — end note ]

A ::, or a nested-name-specifier that names a namespace ([basic.namespace]), in either case followed by the name of a member of that namespace (or the name of a member of a namespace made visible by a using-directive) is a qualified-id; [namespace.qual] describes name lookup for namespace members that appear in qualified-ids. The result is the member. The type of the result is the type of the member. The result is an lvalue if the member is a function or a variable and a prvalue otherwise.

A nested-name-specifier that denotes an enumeration ([dcl.enum]), followed by the name of an enumerator of that enumeration, is a qualified-id that refers to the enumerator. The result is the enumerator. The type of the result is the type of the enumeration. The result is a prvalue.

In a qualified-id, if the unqualified-id is a conversion-function-id, its conversion-type-id shall denote the same type in both the context in which the entire qualified-id occurs and in the context of the class denoted by the nested-name-specifier.

An id-expression that denotes a non-static data member or non-static member function of a class can only be used:

• (13.1)

  as part of a class member access ([expr.ref]) in which the object expression refers to the member's class63 or a class derived from that class, or

• (13.2)

  to form a pointer to member ([expr.unary.op]), or

• (13.3)

  if that id-expression denotes a non-static data member and it appears in an unevaluated operand. [ Example:

  struct S {
    int m;
  };
  int i = sizeof(S::m);           // OK
  int j = sizeof(S::m + 42);      // OK
  

   — end example ]

Lambda expressions provide a concise way to create simple function objects. [ Example:

#include <algorithm>
#include <cmath>
void abssort(float* x, unsigned N) {
  std::sort(x, x + N,
    [](float a, float b) {
      return std::abs(a) < std::abs(b);
    });
}

 — end example ]

lambda-expression:
    lambda-introducer lambda-declaratoropt compound-statement

lambda-introducer:
    [ lambda-captureopt ]

lambda-capture:
    capture-default
    capture-list
    capture-default , capture-list

capture-default:
    &
    =

capture-list:
    capture ...opt
    capture-list , capture ...opt

capture:
    simple-capture
    init-capture

simple-capture:
    identifier
    & identifier
    this

init-capture:
    identifier initializer
    & identifier initializer

lambda-declarator:
    ( parameter-declaration-clause ) mutableopt
    exception-specificationopt attribute-specifier-seqopt trailing-return-typeopt

The evaluation of a lambda-expression results in a prvalue temporary ([class.temporary]). This temporary is called the closure object. A lambda-expression shall not appear in an unevaluated operand (Clause [expr]), in a template-argument, in an alias-declaration, in a typedef declaration, or in the declaration of a function or function template outside its function body and default arguments. [ Note: The intention is to prevent lambdas from appearing in a signature.  — end note ] [ Note: A closure object behaves like a function object ([function.objects]). — end note ]

The type of the lambda-expression (which is also the type of the closure object) is a unique, unnamed non-union class type — called the closure type — whose properties are described below. This class type is neither an aggregate ([dcl.init.aggr]) nor a literal type ([basic.types]). The closure type is declared in the smallest block scope, class scope, or namespace scope that contains the corresponding lambda-expression. [ Note: This determines the set of namespaces and classes associated with the closure type ([basic.lookup.argdep]). The parameter types of a lambda-declarator do not affect these associated namespaces and classes.  — end note ] An implementation may define the closure type differently from what is described below provided this does not alter the observable behavior of the program other than by changing:

• (3.1)

  the size and/or alignment of the closure type,

• (3.2)

  whether the closure type is trivially copyable (Clause [class]),

• (3.3)

  whether the closure type is a standard-layout class (Clause [class]), or

• (3.4)

  whether the closure type is a POD class (Clause [class]).

An implementation shall not add members of rvalue reference type to the closure type.

If a lambda-expression does not include a lambda-declarator, it is as if the lambda-declarator were (). The lambda return type is auto, which is replaced by the trailing-return-type if provided and/or deduced from return statements as described in [dcl.spec.auto]. [ Example:

auto x1 = [](int i){ return i; };     // OK: return type is int
auto x2 = []{ return { 1, 2 }; };     // error: deducing return type from braced-init-list
int j;
auto x3 = []()->auto&& { return j; }; // OK: return type is int&

 — end example ]

The closure type for a non-generic lambda-expression has a public inline function call operator ([over.call]) whose parameters and return type are described by the lambda-expression's parameter-declaration-clause and trailing-return-type respectively. For a generic lambda, the closure type has a public inline function call operator member template ([temp.mem]) whose template-parameter-list consists of one invented type template-parameter for each occurrence of auto in the lambda's parameter-declaration-clause, in order of appearance. The invented type template-parameter is a parameter pack if the corresponding parameter-declaration declares a function parameter pack ([dcl.fct]). The return type and function parameters of the function call operator template are derived from the lambda-expression's trailing-return-type and parameter-declaration-clause by replacing each occurrence of auto in the decl-specifiers of the parameter-declaration-clause with the name of the corresponding invented template-parameter. [ Example:

  auto glambda = [](auto a, auto&& b) { return a < b; };
  bool b = glambda(3, 3.14);                                  // OK
  auto vglambda = [](auto printer) {
     return [=](auto&& ... ts) {                              // OK: ts is a function parameter pack
         printer(std::forward<decltype(ts)>(ts)...);

         return [=]() {
           printer(ts ...);
         };
     };
  };
  auto p = vglambda( [](auto v1, auto v2, auto v3)
                         { std::cout << v1 << v2 << v3; } );
  auto q = p(1, 'a', 3.14);                                   // OK: outputs 1a3.14
  q();                                                        // OK: outputs 1a3.14

 — end example ] This function call operator or operator template is declared const ([class.mfct.non-static]) if and only if the lambda-expression's parameter-declaration-clause is not followed by mutable. It is neither virtual nor declared volatile. Any exception-specification specified on a lambda-expression applies to the corresponding function call operator or operator template. An attribute-specifier-seq in a lambda-declarator appertains to the type of the corresponding function call operator or operator template. [ Note: Names referenced in the lambda-declarator are looked up in the context in which the lambda-expression appears.  — end note ]

The closure type for a non-generic lambda-expression with no lambda-capture has a public non-virtual non-explicit const conversion function to pointer to function with C++ language linkage ([dcl.link]) having the same parameter and return types as the closure type's function call operator. The value returned by this conversion function shall be the address of a function that, when invoked, has the same effect as invoking the closure type's function call operator. For a generic lambda with no lambda-capture, the closure type has a public non-virtual non-explicit const conversion function template to pointer to function. The conversion function template has the same invented template-parameter-list, and the pointer to function has the same parameter types, as the function call operator template. The return type of the pointer to function shall behave as if it were a decltype-specifier denoting the return type of the corresponding function call operator template specialization. [ Note: If the generic lambda has no trailing-return-type or the trailing-return-type contains a placeholder type, return type deduction of the corresponding function call operator template specialization has to be done. The corresponding specialization is that instantiation of the function call operator template with the same template arguments as those deduced for the conversion function template. Consider the following:

auto glambda = [](auto a) { return a; };
int (*fp)(int) = glambda;

The behavior of the conversion function of glambda above is like that of the following conversion function:

struct Closure {
  template<class T> auto operator()(T t) const { ... }
  template<class T> static auto lambda_call_operator_invoker(T a) {
    // forwards execution to operator()(a) and therefore has
    // the same return type deduced
    ...
  }
  template<class T> using fptr_t =
     decltype(lambda_call_operator_invoker(declval<T>())) (*)(T);

  template<class T> operator fptr_t<T>() const
    { return &lambda_call_operator_invoker; }
};

 — end note ] [ Example:

void f1(int (*)(int))   { }
void f2(char (*)(int))  { }

void g(int (*)(int))    { }  // #1
void g(char (*)(char))  { }  // #2

void h(int (*)(int))    { }  // #3
void h(char (*)(int))   { }  // #4

auto glambda = [](auto a) { return a; };
f1(glambda);  // OK
f2(glambda);  // error: ID is not convertible
g(glambda);   // error: ambiguous
h(glambda);   // OK: calls #3 since it is convertible from ID
int& (*fpi)(int*) = [](auto* a) -> auto& { return *a; }; // OK

 — end example ] The value returned by any given specialization of this conversion function template shall be the address of a function that, when invoked, has the same effect as invoking the generic lambda's corresponding function call operator template specialization. [ Note: This will result in the implicit instantiation of the generic lambda's body. The instantiated generic lambda's return type and parameter types shall match the return type and parameter types of the pointer to function.  — end note ] [ Example:

auto GL = [](auto a) { std::cout << a; return a; };
int (*GL_int)(int) = GL;  // OK: through conversion function template
GL_int(3);                // OK: same as GL(3)

 — end example ]

The lambda-expression's compound-statement yields the function-body ([dcl.fct.def]) of the function call operator, but for purposes of name lookup ([basic.lookup]), determining the type and value of this ([class.this]) and transforming id-expressions referring to non-static class members into class member access expressions using (*this) ([class.mfct.non-static]), the compound-statement is considered in the context of the lambda-expression. [ Example:

struct S1 {
  int x, y;
  int operator()(int);
  void f() {
    [=]()->int {
      return operator()(this->x + y); // equivalent to S1::operator()(this->x + (*this).y)
                                      // this has type S1*
    };
  }
};

 — end example ] Further, a variable __func__ is implicitly defined at the beginning of the compound-statement of the lambda-expression, with semantics as described in [dcl.fct.def.general].

If a lambda-capture includes a capture-default that is &, no identifier in a simple-capture of that lambda-capture shall be preceded by &. If a lambda-capture includes a capture-default that is =, each simple-capture of that lambda-capture shall be of the form “& identifier”. Ignoring appearances in initializers of init-captures, an identifier or this shall not appear more than once in a lambda-capture. [ Example:

struct S2 { void f(int i); };
void S2::f(int i) {
  [&, i]{ };    // OK
  [&, &i]{ };   // error: i preceded by & when & is the default
  [=, this]{ }; // error: this when = is the default
  [i, i]{ };    // error: i repeated
}

 — end example ]

A lambda-expression whose smallest enclosing scope is a block scope ([basic.scope.block]) is a local lambda expression; any other lambda-expression shall not have a capture-default or simple-capture in its lambda-introducer. The reaching scope of a local lambda expression is the set of enclosing scopes up to and including the innermost enclosing function and its parameters. [ Note: This reaching scope includes any intervening lambda-expressions.  — end note ]

The identifier in a simple-capture is looked up using the usual rules for unqualified name lookup ([basic.lookup.unqual]); each such lookup shall find an entity. An entity that is designated by a simple-capture is said to be explicitly captured, and shall be this or a variable with automatic storage duration declared in the reaching scope of the local lambda expression.

An init-capture behaves as if it declares and explicitly captures a variable of the form “auto init-capture ;” whose declarative region is the lambda-expression's compound-statement, except that:

• (11.1)

  if the capture is by copy (see below), the non-static data member declared for the capture and the variable are treated as two different ways of referring to the same object, which has the lifetime of the non-static data member, and no additional copy and destruction is performed, and

• (11.2)

  if the capture is by reference, the variable's lifetime ends when the closure object's lifetime ends.

[ Note: This enables an init-capture like “x = std::move(x)”; the second “x” must bind to a declaration in the surrounding context.  — end note ] [ Example:

int x = 4;
auto y = [&r = x, x = x+1]()->int {
            r += 2;
            return x+2;
         }();  // Updates ::x to 6, and initializes y to 7.

 — end example ]

A lambda-expression with an associated capture-default that does not explicitly capture this or a variable with automatic storage duration (this excludes any id-expression that has been found to refer to an init-capture's associated non-static data member), is said to implicitly capture the entity (i.e., this or a variable) if the compound-statement:

• (12.1)

  odr-uses ([basic.def.odr]) the entity, or

• (12.2)

  names the entity in a potentially-evaluated expression ([basic.def.odr]) where the enclosing full-expression depends on a generic lambda parameter declared within the reaching scope of the lambda-expression.

[ Example:

void f(int, const int (&)[2] = {})    { }   // #1
void f(const int&, const int (&)[1])  { }   // #2
void test() {
  const int x = 17;
  auto g = [](auto a) {
    f(x);  // OK: calls #1, does not capture x
  };

  auto g2 = [=](auto a) {
    int selector[sizeof(a) == 1 ? 1 : 2]{};
    f(x, selector);  // OK: is a dependent expression, so captures x
  };
}

 — end example ] All such implicitly captured entities shall be declared within the reaching scope of the lambda expression. [ Note: The implicit capture of an entity by a nested lambda-expression can cause its implicit capture by the containing lambda-expression (see below). Implicit odr-uses of this can result in implicit capture.  — end note ]

An entity is captured if it is captured explicitly or implicitly. An entity captured by a lambda-expression is odr-used ([basic.def.odr]) in the scope containing the lambda-expression. If this is captured by a local lambda expression, its nearest enclosing function shall be a non-static member function. If a lambda-expression or an instantiation of the function call operator template of a generic lambda odr-uses ([basic.def.odr]) this or a variable with automatic storage duration from its reaching scope, that entity shall be captured by the lambda-expression. If a lambda-expression captures an entity and that entity is not defined or captured in the immediately enclosing lambda expression or function, the program is ill-formed. [ Example:

void f1(int i) {
  int const N = 20;
  auto m1 = [=]{
    int const M = 30;
    auto m2 = [i]{
      int x[N][M];              // OK: N and M are not odr-used
      x[0][0] = i;              // OK: i is explicitly captured by m2
                                // and implicitly captured by m1
    };
  };
  struct s1 {
    int f;
    void work(int n) {
      int m = n*n;
      int j = 40;
      auto m3 = [this,m] {
        auto m4 = [&,j] {       // error: j not captured by m3
          int x = n;            // error: n implicitly captured by m4
                                // but not captured by m3
          x += m;               // OK: m implicitly captured by m4
                                // and explicitly captured by m3
          x += i;               // error: i is outside of the reaching scope
          x += f;               // OK: this captured implicitly by m4
                                // and explicitly by m3
        };
      };
    }
  };
}

 — end example ]

A lambda-expression appearing in a default argument shall not implicitly or explicitly capture any entity. [ Example:

void f2() {
  int i = 1;
  void g1(int = ([i]{ return i; })());        // ill-formed
  void g2(int = ([i]{ return 0; })());        // ill-formed
  void g3(int = ([=]{ return i; })());        // ill-formed
  void g4(int = ([=]{ return 0; })());        // OK
  void g5(int = ([]{ return sizeof i; })());  // OK
}

 — end example ]

An entity is captured by copy if it is implicitly captured and the capture-default is = or if it is explicitly captured with a capture that is not of the form & identifier or & identifier initializer. For each entity captured by copy, an unnamed non-static data member is declared in the closure type. The declaration order of these members is unspecified. The type of such a data member is the type of the corresponding captured entity if the entity is not a reference to an object, or the referenced type otherwise. [ Note: If the captured entity is a reference to a function, the corresponding data member is also a reference to a function.  — end note ] A member of an anonymous union shall not be captured by copy.

An entity is captured by reference if it is implicitly or explicitly captured but not captured by copy. It is unspecified whether additional unnamed non-static data members are declared in the closure type for entities captured by reference. A member of an anonymous union shall not be captured by reference.

If a lambda-expression m2 captures an entity and that entity is captured by an immediately enclosing lambda-expression m1, then m2's capture is transformed as follows:

• (17.1)

  if m1 captures the entity by copy, m2 captures the corresponding non-static data member of m1's closure type;

• (17.2)

  if m1 captures the entity by reference, m2 captures the same entity captured by m1.

[ Example: the nested lambda expressions and invocations below will output 123234.

int a = 1, b = 1, c = 1;
auto m1 = [a, &b, &c]() mutable {
  auto m2 = [a, b, &c]() mutable {
    std::cout << a << b << c;
    a = 4; b = 4; c = 4;
  };
  a = 3; b = 3; c = 3;
  m2();
};
a = 2; b = 2; c = 2;
m1();
std::cout << a << b << c;

 — end example ]

Every id-expression within the compound-statement of a lambda-expression that is an odr-use ([basic.def.odr]) of an entity captured by copy is transformed into an access to the corresponding unnamed data member of the closure type. [ Note: An id-expression that is not an odr-use refers to the original entity, never to a member of the closure type. Furthermore, such an id-expression does not cause the implicit capture of the entity.  — end note ] If this is captured, each odr-use of this is transformed into an access to the corresponding unnamed data member of the closure type, cast ([expr.cast]) to the type of this. [ Note: The cast ensures that the transformed expression is a prvalue.  — end note ] [ Example:

void f(const int*);
void g() {
  const int N = 10;
  [=] {
    int arr[N];             // OK: not an odr-use, refers to automatic variable
    f(&N);                  // OK: causes N to be captured; &N points to the
                            // corresponding member of the closure type
  };
}

 — end example ]

Every occurrence of decltype((x)) where x is a possibly parenthesized id-expression that names an entity of automatic storage duration is treated as if x were transformed into an access to a corresponding data member of the closure type that would have been declared if x were an odr-use of the denoted entity. [ Example:

void f3() {
  float x, &r = x;
  [=] {                     // x and r are not captured (appearance in a decltype operand is not an odr-use)
    decltype(x) y1;         // y1 has type float
    decltype((x)) y2 = y1;  // y2 has type float const& because this lambda
                            // is not mutable and x is an lvalue
    decltype(r) r1 = y1;    // r1 has type float& (transformation not considered)
    decltype((r)) r2 = y2;  // r2 has type float const&
  };
}

 — end example ]

The closure type associated with a lambda-expression has a deleted ([dcl.fct.def.delete]) default constructor and a deleted copy assignment operator. It has an implicitly-declared copy constructor ([class.copy]) and may have an implicitly-declared move constructor ([class.copy]). [ Note: The copy/move constructor is implicitly defined in the same way as any other implicitly declared copy/move constructor would be implicitly defined.  — end note ]

The closure type associated with a lambda-expression has an implicitly-declared destructor ([class.dtor]).

When the lambda-expression is evaluated, the entities that are captured by copy are used to direct-initialize each corresponding non-static data member of the resulting closure object, and the non-static data members corresponding to the init-captures are initialized as indicated by the corresponding initializer (which may be copy- or direct-initialization). (For array members, the array elements are direct-initialized in increasing subscript order.) These initializations are performed in the (unspecified) order in which the non-static data members are declared. [ Note: This ensures that the destructions will occur in the reverse order of the constructions.  — end note ]

[ Note: If an entity is implicitly or explicitly captured by reference, invoking the function call operator of the corresponding lambda-expression after the lifetime of the entity has ended is likely to result in undefined behavior.  — end note ]

A simple-capture followed by an ellipsis is a pack expansion ([temp.variadic]). An init-capture followed by an ellipsis is ill-formed. [ Example:

template<class... Args>
void f(Args... args) {
  auto lm = [&, args...] { return g(args...); };
  lm();
}

 — end example ]

A postfix expression followed by an expression in square brackets is a postfix expression. One of the expressions shall have the type “array of T” or “pointer to T” and the other shall have unscoped enumeration or integral type. The result is of type “T.” The type “T” shall be a completely-defined object type.64 The expression E1[E2] is identical (by definition) to *((E1)+(E2)) [ Note: see [expr.unary] and [expr.add] for details of * and + and [dcl.array] for details of arrays.  — end note ], except that in the case of an array operand, the result is an lvalue if that operand is an lvalue and an xvalue otherwise.

A braced-init-list shall not be used with the built-in subscript operator.

A function call is a postfix expression followed by parentheses containing a possibly empty, comma-separated list of initializer-clauses which constitute the arguments to the function. The postfix expression shall have function type or pointer to function type. For a call to a non-member function or to a static member function, the postfix expression shall be either an lvalue that refers to a function (in which case the function-to-pointer standard conversion ([conv.func]) is suppressed on the postfix expression), or it shall have pointer to function type. Calling a function through an expression whose function type has a language linkage that is different from the language linkage of the function type of the called function's definition is undefined ([dcl.link]). For a call to a non-static member function, the postfix expression shall be an implicit ([class.mfct.non-static], [class.static]) or explicit class member access ([expr.ref]) whose id-expression is a function member name, or a pointer-to-member expression ([expr.mptr.oper]) selecting a function member; the call is as a member of the class object referred to by the object expression. In the case of an implicit class member access, the implied object is the one pointed to by this. [ Note: a member function call of the form f() is interpreted as (*this).f() (see [class.mfct.non-static]).  — end note ] If a function or member function name is used, the name can be overloaded (Clause [over]), in which case the appropriate function shall be selected according to the rules in [over.match]. If the selected function is non-virtual, or if the id-expression in the class member access expression is a qualified-id, that function is called. Otherwise, its final overrider ([class.virtual]) in the dynamic type of the object expression is called; such a call is referred to as a virtual function call. [ Note: the dynamic type is the type of the object referred to by the current value of the object expression. [class.cdtor] describes the behavior of virtual function calls when the object expression refers to an object under construction or destruction.  — end note ]

[ Note: If a function or member function name is used, and name lookup ([basic.lookup]) does not find a declaration of that name, the program is ill-formed. No function is implicitly declared by such a call.  — end note ]

If the postfix-expression designates a destructor ([class.dtor]), the type of the function call expression is void; otherwise, the type of the function call expression is the return type of the statically chosen function (i.e., ignoring the virtual keyword), even if the type of the function actually called is different. This return type shall be an object type, a reference type or cv void.

When a function is called, each parameter ([dcl.fct]) shall be initialized ([dcl.init], [class.copy], [class.ctor]) with its corresponding argument. [ Note: Such initializations are indeterminately sequenced with respect to each other ([intro.execution])  — end note ] If the function is a non-static member function, the this parameter of the function ([class.this]) shall be initialized with a pointer to the object of the call, converted as if by an explicit type conversion ([expr.cast]). [ Note: There is no access or ambiguity checking on this conversion; the access checking and disambiguation are done as part of the (possibly implicit) class member access operator. See [class.member.lookup], [class.access.base], and [expr.ref].  — end note ] When a function is called, the parameters that have object type shall have completely-defined object type. [ Note: this still allows a parameter to be a pointer or reference to an incomplete class type. However, it prevents a passed-by-value parameter to have an incomplete class type.  — end note ] During the initialization of a parameter, an implementation may avoid the construction of extra temporaries by combining the conversions on the associated argument and/or the construction of temporaries with the initialization of the parameter (see [class.temporary]). The lifetime of a parameter ends when the function in which it is defined returns. The initialization and destruction of each parameter occurs within the context of the calling function. [ Example: the access of the constructor, conversion functions or destructor is checked at the point of call in the calling function. If a constructor or destructor for a function parameter throws an exception, the search for a handler starts in the scope of the calling function; in particular, if the function called has a function-try-block (Clause [except]) with a handler that could handle the exception, this handler is not considered.  — end example ] The value of a function call is the value returned by the called function except in a virtual function call if the return type of the final overrider is different from the return type of the statically chosen function, the value returned from the final overrider is converted to the return type of the statically chosen function.

[ Note: a function can change the values of its non-const parameters, but these changes cannot affect the values of the arguments except where a parameter is of a reference type ([dcl.ref]); if the reference is to a const-qualified type, const_cast is required to be used to cast away the constness in order to modify the argument's value. Where a parameter is of const reference type a temporary object is introduced if needed ([dcl.type], [lex.literal], [lex.string], [dcl.array], [class.temporary]). In addition, it is possible to modify the values of nonconstant objects through pointer parameters.  — end note ]

A function can be declared to accept fewer arguments (by declaring default arguments ([dcl.fct.default])) or more arguments (by using the ellipsis, ..., or a function parameter pack ([dcl.fct])) than the number of parameters in the function definition ([dcl.fct.def]). [ Note: this implies that, except where the ellipsis (...) or a function parameter pack is used, a parameter is available for each argument.  — end note ]

When there is no parameter for a given argument, the argument is passed in such a way that the receiving function can obtain the value of the argument by invoking va_arg ([support.runtime]). [ Note: This paragraph does not apply to arguments passed to a function parameter pack. Function parameter packs are expanded during template instantiation ([temp.variadic]), thus each such argument has a corresponding parameter when a function template specialization is actually called.  — end note ] The lvalue-to-rvalue ([conv.lval]), array-to-pointer ([conv.array]), and function-to-pointer ([conv.func]) standard conversions are performed on the argument expression. An argument that has (possibly cv-qualified) type std::nullptr_t is converted to type void* ([conv.ptr]). After these conversions, if the argument does not have arithmetic, enumeration, pointer, pointer to member, or class type, the program is ill-formed. Passing a potentially-evaluated argument of class type (Clause [class]) having a non-trivial copy constructor, a non-trivial move constructor, or a non-trivial destructor, with no corresponding parameter, is conditionally-supported with implementation-defined semantics. If the argument has integral or enumeration type that is subject to the integral promotions ([conv.prom]), or a floating point type that is subject to the floating point promotion ([conv.fpprom]), the value of the argument is converted to the promoted type before the call. These promotions are referred to as the default argument promotions.

[ Note: The evaluations of the postfix expression and of the arguments are all unsequenced relative to one another. All side effects of argument evaluations are sequenced before the function is entered (see [intro.execution]).  — end note ]

Recursive calls are permitted, except to the main function ([basic.start.main]).

A function call is an lvalue if the result type is an lvalue reference type or an rvalue reference to function type, an xvalue if the result type is an rvalue reference to object type, and a prvalue otherwise.

If a function call is a prvalue of object type:

• (11.1)

  if the function call is either

  • (11.1.1)

    the operand of a decltype-specifier or

  • (11.1.2)

    the right operand of a comma operator that is the operand of a decltype-specifier,

  a temporary object is not introduced for the prvalue. The type of the prvalue may be incomplete. [ Note: as a result, storage is not allocated for the prvalue and it is not destroyed; thus, a class type is not instantiated as a result of being the type of a function call in this context. This is true regardless of whether the expression uses function call notation or operator notation ([over.match.oper]).  — end note ] [ Note: unlike the rule for a decltype-specifier that considers whether an id-expression is parenthesized ([dcl.type.simple]), parentheses have no special meaning in this context.  — end note ]

• (11.2)

  otherwise, the type of the prvalue shall be complete.

A simple-type-specifier ([dcl.type.simple]) or typename-specifier ([temp.res]) followed by a parenthesized expression-list constructs a value of the specified type given the expression list. If the expression list is a single expression, the type conversion expression is equivalent (in definedness, and if defined in meaning) to the corresponding cast expression ([expr.cast]). If the type specified is a class type, the class type shall be complete. If the expression list specifies more than a single value, the type shall be a class with a suitably declared constructor ([dcl.init], [class.ctor]), and the expression T(x1, x2, ...) is equivalent in effect to the declaration T t(x1, x2, ...); for some invented temporary variable t, with the result being the value of t as a prvalue.

The expression T(), where T is a simple-type-specifier or typename-specifier for a non-array complete object type or the (possibly cv-qualified) void type, creates a prvalue of the specified type, whose value is that produced by value-initializing ([dcl.init]) an object of type T; no initialization is done for the void() case. [ Note: if T is a non-class type that is cv-qualified, the cv-qualifiers are discarded when determining the type of the resulting prvalue (Clause [expr]).  — end note ]

Similarly, a simple-type-specifier or typename-specifier followed by a braced-init-list creates a temporary object of the specified type direct-list-initialized ([dcl.init.list]) with the specified braced-init-list, and its value is that temporary object as a prvalue.

The use of a pseudo-destructor-name after a dot . or arrow -> operator represents the destructor for the non-class type denoted by type-name or decltype-specifier. The result shall only be used as the operand for the function call operator (), and the result of such a call has type void. The only effect is the evaluation of the postfix-expression before the dot or arrow.

The left-hand side of the dot operator shall be of scalar type. The left-hand side of the arrow operator shall be of pointer to scalar type. This scalar type is the object type. The cv-unqualified versions of the object type and of the type designated by the pseudo-destructor-name shall be the same type. Furthermore, the two type-names in a pseudo-destructor-name of the form

nested-name-specifieropt type-name :: ~ type-name

shall designate the same scalar type.

A postfix expression followed by a dot . or an arrow ->, optionally followed by the keyword template ([temp.names]), and then followed by an id-expression, is a postfix expression. The postfix expression before the dot or arrow is evaluated;65 the result of that evaluation, together with the id-expression, determines the result of the entire postfix expression.

For the first option (dot) the first expression shall have complete class type. For the second option (arrow) the first expression shall have pointer to complete class type. The expression E1->E2 is converted to the equivalent form (*(E1)).E2; the remainder of [expr.ref] will address only the first option (dot).66 In either case, the id-expression shall name a member of the class or of one of its base classes. [ Note: because the name of a class is inserted in its class scope (Clause [class]), the name of a class is also considered a nested member of that class.  — end note ] [ Note: [basic.lookup.classref] describes how names are looked up after the . and -> operators.  — end note ]

Abbreviating postfix-expression.id-expression as E1.E2, E1 is called the object expression. The type and value category of E1.E2 are determined as follows. In the remainder of [expr.ref], cq represents either const or the absence of const and vq represents either volatile or the absence of volatile. cv represents an arbitrary set of cv-qualifiers, as defined in [basic.type.qualifier].

If E2 is declared to have type “reference to T,” then E1.E2 is an lvalue; the type of E1.E2 is T. Otherwise, one of the following rules applies.

• (4.1)

  If E2 is a static data member and the type of E2 is T, then E1.E2 is an lvalue; the expression designates the named member of the class. The type of E1.E2 is T.

• (4.2)

  If E2 is a non-static data member and the type of E1 is “cq1 vq1 X”, and the type of E2 is “cq2 vq2 T”, the expression designates the named member of the object designated by the first expression. If E1 is an lvalue, then E1.E2 is an lvalue; otherwise E1.E2 is an xvalue. Let the notation vq12 stand for the “union” of vq1 and vq2; that is, if vq1 or vq2 is volatile, then vq12 is volatile. Similarly, let the notation cq12 stand for the “union” of cq1 and cq2; that is, if cq1 or cq2 is const, then cq12 is const. If E2 is declared to be a mutable member, then the type of E1.E2 is “vq12 T”. If E2 is not declared to be a mutable member, then the type of E1.E2 is “cq12 vq12 T”.

• (4.3)

  If E2 is a (possibly overloaded) member function, function overload resolution ([over.match]) is used to determine whether E1.E2 refers to a static or a non-static member function.

  • (4.3.1)

    If it refers to a static member function and the type of E2 is “function of parameter-type-list returning T”, then E1.E2 is an lvalue; the expression designates the static member function. The type of E1.E2 is the same type as that of E2, namely “function of parameter-type-list returning T”.

  • (4.3.2)

    Otherwise, if E1.E2 refers to a non-static member function and the type of E2 is “function of parameter-type-list cv ref-qualifier_opt returning T”, then E1.E2 is a prvalue. The expression designates a non-static member function. The expression can be used only as the left-hand operand of a member function call ([class.mfct]). [ Note: Any redundant set of parentheses surrounding the expression is ignored ([expr.prim]).  — end note ] The type of E1.E2 is “function of parameter-type-list cv returning T”.

• (4.4)

  If E2 is a nested type, the expression E1.E2 is ill-formed.

• (4.5)

  If E2 is a member enumerator and the type of E2 is T, the expression E1.E2 is a prvalue. The type of E1.E2 is T.

If E2 is a non-static data member or a non-static member function, the program is ill-formed if the class of which E2 is directly a member is an ambiguous base ([class.member.lookup]) of the naming class ([class.access.base]) of E2. [ Note: The program is also ill-formed if the naming class is an ambiguous base of the class type of the object expression; see [class.access.base].  — end note ]

The value of a postfix ++ expression is the value of its operand. [ Note: the value obtained is a copy of the original value  — end note ] The operand shall be a modifiable lvalue. The type of the operand shall be an arithmetic type or a pointer to a complete object type. The value of the operand object is modified by adding 1 to it, unless the object is of type bool, in which case it is set to true. [ Note: this use is deprecated, see Annex [depr].  — end note ] The value computation of the ++ expression is sequenced before the modification of the operand object. With respect to an indeterminately-sequenced function call, the operation of postfix ++ is a single evaluation. [ Note: Therefore, a function call shall not intervene between the lvalue-to-rvalue conversion and the side effect associated with any single postfix ++ operator.  — end note ] The result is a prvalue. The type of the result is the cv-unqualified version of the type of the operand. See also [expr.add] and [expr.ass].

The operand of postfix -- is decremented analogously to the postfix ++ operator, except that the operand shall not be of type bool. [ Note: For prefix increment and decrement, see [expr.pre.incr].  — end note ]

The result of the expression dynamic_cast<T>(v) is the result of converting the expression v to type T. T shall be a pointer or reference to a complete class type, or “pointer to cv void.” The dynamic_cast operator shall not cast away constness ([expr.const.cast]).

If T is a pointer type, v shall be a prvalue of a pointer to complete class type, and the result is a prvalue of type T. If T is an lvalue reference type, v shall be an lvalue of a complete class type, and the result is an lvalue of the type referred to by T. If T is an rvalue reference type, v shall be an expression having a complete class type, and the result is an xvalue of the type referred to by T.

If the type of v is the same as T, or it is the same as T except that the class object type in T is more cv-qualified than the class object type in v, the result is v (converted if necessary).

If the value of v is a null pointer value in the pointer case, the result is the null pointer value of type T.

If T is “pointer to cv1 B” and v has type “pointer to cv2 D” such that B is a base class of D, the result is a pointer to the unique B subobject of the D object pointed to by v. Similarly, if T is “reference to cv1 B” and v has type cv2 D such that B is a base class of D, the result is the unique B subobject of the D object referred to by v. 67 The result is an lvalue if T is an lvalue reference, or an xvalue if T is an rvalue reference. In both the pointer and reference cases, the program is ill-formed if cv2 has greater cv-qualification than cv1 or if B is an inaccessible or ambiguous base class of D. [ Example:

struct B { };
struct D : B { };
void foo(D* dp) {
  B*  bp = dynamic_cast<B*>(dp);    // equivalent to B* bp = dp;
}

 — end example ]

Otherwise, v shall be a pointer to or a glvalue of a polymorphic type ([class.virtual]).

If T is “pointer to cv void,” then the result is a pointer to the most derived object pointed to by v. Otherwise, a run-time check is applied to see if the object pointed or referred to by v can be converted to the type pointed or referred to by T.

If C is the class type to which T points or refers, the run-time check logically executes as follows:

• (8.1)

  If, in the most derived object pointed (referred) to by v, v points (refers) to a public base class subobject of a C object, and if only one object of type C is derived from the subobject pointed (referred) to by v the result points (refers) to that C object.

• (8.2)

  Otherwise, if v points (refers) to a public base class subobject of the most derived object, and the type of the most derived object has a base class, of type C, that is unambiguous and public, the result points (refers) to the C subobject of the most derived object.

• (8.3)

  Otherwise, the run-time check fails.

The value of a failed cast to pointer type is the null pointer value of the required result type. A failed cast to reference type throws an exception ([except.throw]) of a type that would match a handler ([except.handle]) of type std::bad_cast ([bad.cast]).

[ Example:

class A { virtual void f(); };
class B { virtual void g(); };
class D : public virtual A, private B { };
void g() {
  D   d;
  B*  bp = (B*)&d;                  // cast needed to break protection
  A*  ap = &d;                      // public derivation, no cast needed
  D&  dr = dynamic_cast<D&>(*bp);   // fails
  ap = dynamic_cast<A*>(bp);        // fails
  bp = dynamic_cast<B*>(ap);        // fails
  ap = dynamic_cast<A*>(&d);        // succeeds
  bp = dynamic_cast<B*>(&d);        // ill-formed (not a run-time check)
}

class E : public D, public B { };
class F : public E, public D { };
void h() {
  F   f;
  A*  ap  = &f;                     // succeeds: finds unique A
  D*  dp  = dynamic_cast<D*>(ap);   // fails: yields 0
                                    // f has two D subobjects
  E*  ep  = (E*)ap;                 // ill-formed: cast from virtual base
  E*  ep1 = dynamic_cast<E*>(ap);   // succeeds
}

 — end example ] [ Note: [class.cdtor] describes the behavior of a dynamic_cast applied to an object under construction or destruction.  — end note ]

The result of a typeid expression is an lvalue of static type const std::type_info ([type.info]) and dynamic type const std::type_info or const name where name is an implementation-defined class publicly derived from std :: type_info which preserves the behavior described in [type.info].68 The lifetime of the object referred to by the lvalue extends to the end of the program. Whether or not the destructor is called for the std::type_info object at the end of the program is unspecified.

When typeid is applied to a glvalue expression whose type is a polymorphic class type ([class.virtual]), the result refers to a std::type_info object representing the type of the most derived object ([intro.object]) (that is, the dynamic type) to which the glvalue refers. If the glvalue expression is obtained by applying the unary * operator to a pointer69 and the pointer is a null pointer value ([conv.ptr]), the typeid expression throws an exception ([except.throw]) of a type that would match a handler of type std::bad_typeid exception ([bad.typeid]).

When typeid is applied to an expression other than a glvalue of a polymorphic class type, the result refers to a std::type_info object representing the static type of the expression. Lvalue-to-rvalue ([conv.lval]), array-to-pointer ([conv.array]), and function-to-pointer ([conv.func]) conversions are not applied to the expression. If the type of the expression is a class type, the class shall be completely-defined. The expression is an unevaluated operand (Clause [expr]).

When typeid is applied to a type-id, the result refers to a std::type_info object representing the type of the type-id. If the type of the type-id is a reference to a possibly cv-qualified type, the result of the typeid expression refers to a std::type_info object representing the cv-unqualified referenced type. If the type of the type-id is a class type or a reference to a class type, the class shall be completely-defined.

If the type of the expression or type-id is a cv-qualified type, the result of the typeid expression refers to a std::type_info object representing the cv-unqualified type. [ Example:

class D { /* ... */ };
D d1;
const D d2;

typeid(d1) == typeid(d2);       // yields true
typeid(D)  == typeid(const D);  // yields true
typeid(D)  == typeid(d2);       // yields true
typeid(D)  == typeid(const D&); // yields true

 — end example ]

If the header <typeinfo> ([type.info]) is not included prior to a use of typeid, the program is ill-formed.

[ Note: [class.cdtor] describes the behavior of typeid applied to an object under construction or destruction.  — end note ]

The result of the expression static_cast<T>(v) is the result of converting the expression v to type T. If T is an lvalue reference type or an rvalue reference to function type, the result is an lvalue; if T is an rvalue reference to object type, the result is an xvalue; otherwise, the result is a prvalue. The static_cast operator shall not cast away constness ([expr.const.cast]).

An lvalue of type “cv1 B,” where B is a class type, can be cast to type “reference to cv2 D,” where D is a class derived (Clause [class.derived]) from B, if a valid standard conversion from “pointer to D” to “pointer to B” exists ([conv.ptr]), cv2 is the same cv-qualification as, or greater cv-qualification than, cv1, and B is neither a virtual base class of D nor a base class of a virtual base class of D. The result has type “cv2 D.” An xvalue of type “cv1 B” may be cast to type “rvalue reference to cv2 D” with the same constraints as for an lvalue of type “cv1 B.” If the object of type “cv1 B” is actually a subobject of an object of type D, the result refers to the enclosing object of type D. Otherwise, the behavior is undefined. [ Example:

struct B { };
struct D : public B { };
D d;
B &br = d;

static_cast<D&>(br);            // produces lvalue to the original d object

 — end example ]

A glvalue, class prvalue, or array prvalue of type “cv1 T1” can be cast to type “rvalue reference to cv2 T2” if “cv2 T2” is reference-compatible with “cv1 T1” ([dcl.init.ref]). If the value is not a bit-field, the result refers to the object or the specified base class subobject thereof; otherwise, the lvalue-to-rvalue conversion ([conv.lval]) is applied to the bit-field and the resulting prvalue is used as the expression of the static_cast for the remainder of this section. If T2 is an inaccessible (Clause [class.access]) or ambiguous ([class.member.lookup]) base class of T1, a program that necessitates such a cast is ill-formed.

An expression e can be explicitly converted to a type T using a static_cast of the form static_cast<T>(e) if the declaration T t(e); is well-formed, for some invented temporary variable t ([dcl.init]). The effect of such an explicit conversion is the same as performing the declaration and initialization and then using the temporary variable as the result of the conversion. The expression e is used as a glvalue if and only if the initialization uses it as a glvalue.

Otherwise, the static_cast shall perform one of the conversions listed below. No other conversion shall be performed explicitly using a static_cast.

Any expression can be explicitly converted to type cv void, in which case it becomes a discarded-value expression (Clause [expr]). [ Note: however, if the value is in a temporary object ([class.temporary]), the destructor for that object is not executed until the usual time, and the value of the object is preserved for the purpose of executing the destructor.  — end note ]

The inverse of any standard conversion sequence (Clause [conv]) not containing an lvalue-to-rvalue ([conv.lval]), array-to-pointer ([conv.array]), function-to-pointer ([conv.func]), null pointer ([conv.ptr]), null member pointer ([conv.mem]), or boolean ([conv.bool]) conversion, can be performed explicitly using static_cast. A program is ill-formed if it uses static_cast to perform the inverse of an ill-formed standard conversion sequence. [ Example:

struct B { };
struct D : private B { };
void f() {
  static_cast<D*>((B*)0);               // Error: B is a private base of D.
  static_cast<int B::*>((int D::*)0);   // Error: B is a private base of D.
}

 — end example ]

The lvalue-to-rvalue ([conv.lval]), array-to-pointer ([conv.array]), and function-to-pointer ([conv.func]) conversions are applied to the operand. Such a static_cast is subject to the restriction that the explicit conversion does not cast away constness ([expr.const.cast]), and the following additional rules for specific cases:

A value of a scoped enumeration type ([dcl.enum]) can be explicitly converted to an integral type. When that type is cv bool, the resulting value is false if the original value is zero and true for all other values. For the remaining integral types, the value is unchanged if the original value can be represented by the specified type. Otherwise, the resulting value is unspecified. A value of a scoped enumeration type can also be explicitly converted to a floating-point type; the result is the same as that of converting from the original value to the floating-point type.

A value of integral or enumeration type can be explicitly converted to an enumeration type. The value is unchanged if the original value is within the range of the enumeration values ([dcl.enum]). Otherwise, the resulting value is unspecified (and might not be in that range). A value of floating-point type can also be explicitly converted to an enumeration type. The resulting value is the same as converting the original value to the underlying type of the enumeration ([conv.fpint]), and subsequently to the enumeration type.

A prvalue of type “pointer to cv1 B,” where B is a class type, can be converted to a prvalue of type “pointer to cv2 D,” where D is a class derived (Clause [class.derived]) from B, if a valid standard conversion from “pointer to D” to “pointer to B” exists ([conv.ptr]), cv2 is the same cv-qualification as, or greater cv-qualification than, cv1, and B is neither a virtual base class of D nor a base class of a virtual base class of D. The null pointer value ([conv.ptr]) is converted to the null pointer value of the destination type. If the prvalue of type “pointer to cv1 B” points to a B that is actually a subobject of an object of type D, the resulting pointer points to the enclosing object of type D. Otherwise, the behavior is undefined.

A prvalue of type “pointer to member of D of type cv1 T” can be converted to a prvalue of type “pointer to member of B” of type cv2 T, where B is a base class (Clause [class.derived]) of D, if a valid standard conversion from “pointer to member of B of type T” to “pointer to member of D of type T” exists ([conv.mem]), and cv2 is the same cv-qualification as, or greater cv-qualification than, cv1.70 The null member pointer value ([conv.mem]) is converted to the null member pointer value of the destination type. If class B contains the original member, or is a base or derived class of the class containing the original member, the resulting pointer to member points to the original member. Otherwise, the behavior is undefined. [ Note: although class B need not contain the original member, the dynamic type of the object with which indirection through the pointer to member is performed must contain the original member; see [expr.mptr.oper].  — end note ]

A prvalue of type “pointer to cv1 void” can be converted to a prvalue of type “pointer to cv2 T,” where T is an object type and cv2 is the same cv-qualification as, or greater cv-qualification than, cv1. The null pointer value is converted to the null pointer value of the destination type. If the original pointer value represents the address A of a byte in memory and A satisfies the alignment requirement of T, then the resulting pointer value represents the same address as the original pointer value, that is, A. The result of any other such pointer conversion is unspecified. A value of type pointer to object converted to “pointer to cv void” and back, possibly with different cv-qualification, shall have its original value. [ Example:

T* p1 = new T;
const T* p2 = static_cast<const T*>(static_cast<void*>(p1));
bool b = p1 == p2;  // b will have the value true.

 — end example ]

The result of the expression reinterpret_cast<T>(v) is the result of converting the expression v to type T. If T is an lvalue reference type or an rvalue reference to function type, the result is an lvalue; if T is an rvalue reference to object type, the result is an xvalue; otherwise, the result is a prvalue and the lvalue-to-rvalue ([conv.lval]), array-to-pointer ([conv.array]), and function-to-pointer ([conv.func]) standard conversions are performed on the expression v. Conversions that can be performed explicitly using reinterpret_cast are listed below. No other conversion can be performed explicitly using reinterpret_cast.

The reinterpret_cast operator shall not cast away constness ([expr.const.cast]). An expression of integral, enumeration, pointer, or pointer-to-member type can be explicitly converted to its own type; such a cast yields the value of its operand.

[ Note: The mapping performed by reinterpret_cast might, or might not, produce a representation different from the original value.  — end note ]

A pointer can be explicitly converted to any integral type large enough to hold it. The mapping function is implementation-defined. [ Note: It is intended to be unsurprising to those who know the addressing structure of the underlying machine.  — end note ] A value of type std::nullptr_t can be converted to an integral type; the conversion has the same meaning and validity as a conversion of (void*)0 to the integral type. [ Note: A reinterpret_cast cannot be used to convert a value of any type to the type std::nullptr_t.  — end note ]

A value of integral type or enumeration type can be explicitly converted to a pointer. A pointer converted to an integer of sufficient size (if any such exists on the implementation) and back to the same pointer type will have its original value; mappings between pointers and integers are otherwise implementation-defined. [ Note: Except as described in [basic.stc.dynamic.safety], the result of such a conversion will not be a safely-derived pointer value.  — end note ]

A function pointer can be explicitly converted to a function pointer of a different type. The effect of calling a function through a pointer to a function type ([dcl.fct]) that is not the same as the type used in the definition of the function is undefined. Except that converting a prvalue of type “pointer to T1” to the type “pointer to T2” (where T1 and T2 are function types) and back to its original type yields the original pointer value, the result of such a pointer conversion is unspecified. [ Note: see also [conv.ptr] for more details of pointer conversions.  — end note ]

An object pointer can be explicitly converted to an object pointer of a different type.71 When a prvalue v of object pointer type is converted to the object pointer type “pointer to cv T”, the result is static_cast<cv T*>(static_cast<cv void*>(v)). Converting a prvalue of type “pointer to T1” to the type “pointer to T2” (where T1 and T2 are object types and where the alignment requirements of T2 are no stricter than those of T1) and back to its original type yields the original pointer value.

Converting a function pointer to an object pointer type or vice versa is conditionally-supported. The meaning of such a conversion is implementation-defined, except that if an implementation supports conversions in both directions, converting a prvalue of one type to the other type and back, possibly with different cv-qualification, shall yield the original pointer value.

The null pointer value ([conv.ptr]) is converted to the null pointer value of the destination type. [ Note: A null pointer constant of type std::nullptr_t cannot be converted to a pointer type, and a null pointer constant of integral type is not necessarily converted to a null pointer value.  — end note ]

A prvalue of type “pointer to member of X of type T1” can be explicitly converted to a prvalue of a different type “pointer to member of Y of type T2” if T1 and T2 are both function types or both object types.72 The null member pointer value ([conv.mem]) is converted to the null member pointer value of the destination type. The result of this conversion is unspecified, except in the following cases:

• (10.1)

  converting a prvalue of type “pointer to member function” to a different pointer to member function type and back to its original type yields the original pointer to member value.

• (10.2)

  converting a prvalue of type “pointer to data member of X of type T1” to the type “pointer to data member of Y of type T2” (where the alignment requirements of T2 are no stricter than those of T1) and back to its original type yields the original pointer to member value.

A glvalue expression of type T1 can be cast to the type “reference to T2” if an expression of type “pointer to T1” can be explicitly converted to the type “pointer to T2” using a reinterpret_cast. The result refers to the same object as the source glvalue, but with the specified type. [ Note: That is, for lvalues, a reference cast reinterpret_cast<T&>(x) has the same effect as the conversion *reinterpret_cast<T*>(&x) with the built-in & and * operators (and similarly for reinterpret_cast<T&&>(x)).  — end note ] No temporary is created, no copy is made, and constructors ([class.ctor]) or conversion functions ([class.conv]) are not called.73

The result of the expression const_cast<T>(v) is of type T. If T is an lvalue reference to object type, the result is an lvalue; if T is an rvalue reference to object type, the result is an xvalue; otherwise, the result is a prvalue and the lvalue-to-rvalue ([conv.lval]), array-to-pointer ([conv.array]), and function-to-pointer ([conv.func]) standard conversions are performed on the expression v. Conversions that can be performed explicitly using const_cast are listed below. No other conversion shall be performed explicitly using const_cast.

[ Note: Subject to the restrictions in this section, an expression may be cast to its own type using a const_cast operator.  — end note ]

For two pointer types T1 and T2 where

and

where T is any object type or the void type and where cv_1,k and cv_2,k may be different cv-qualifications, a prvalue of type T1 may be explicitly converted to the type T2 using a const_cast. The result of a pointer const_cast refers to the original object.

For two object types T1 and T2, if a pointer to T1 can be explicitly converted to the type “pointer to T2” using a const_cast, then the following conversions can also be made:

• (4.1)

  an lvalue of type T1 can be explicitly converted to an lvalue of type T2 using the cast const_cast<T2&>;

• (4.2)

  a glvalue of type T1 can be explicitly converted to an xvalue of type T2 using the cast const_cast<T2&&>; and

• (4.3)

  if T1 is a class type, a prvalue of type T1 can be explicitly converted to an xvalue of type T2 using the cast const_cast<T2&&>.

The result of a reference const_cast refers to the original object.

For a const_cast involving pointers to data members, multi-level pointers to data members and multi-level mixed pointers and pointers to data members ([conv.qual]), the rules for const_cast are the same as those used for pointers; the “member” aspect of a pointer to member is ignored when determining where the cv-qualifiers are added or removed by the const_cast. The result of a pointer to data member const_cast refers to the same member as the original (uncast) pointer to data member.

A null pointer value ([conv.ptr]) is converted to the null pointer value of the destination type. The null member pointer value ([conv.mem]) is converted to the null member pointer value of the destination type.

[ Note: Depending on the type of the object, a write operation through the pointer, lvalue or pointer to data member resulting from a const_cast that casts away a const-qualifier74 may produce undefined behavior ([dcl.type.cv]).  — end note ]

The following rules define the process known as casting away constness. In these rules Tn and Xn represent types. For two pointer types:

casting from X1 to X2 casts away constness if, for a non-pointer type T there does not exist an implicit conversion (Clause [conv]) from:

to

Casting from an lvalue of type T1 to an lvalue of type T2 using an lvalue reference cast or casting from an expression of type T1 to an xvalue of type T2 using an rvalue reference cast casts away constness if a cast from a prvalue of type “pointer to T1” to the type “pointer to T2” casts away constness.

Casting from a prvalue of type “pointer to data member of X of type T1” to the type “pointer to data member of Y of type T2” casts away constness if a cast from a prvalue of type “pointer to T1” to the type “pointer to T2” casts away constness.

For multi-level pointer to members and multi-level mixed pointers and pointer to members ([conv.qual]), the “member” aspect of a pointer to member level is ignored when determining if a const cv-qualifier has been cast away.

[ Note: some conversions which involve only changes in cv-qualification cannot be done using const_cast. For instance, conversions between pointers to functions are not covered because such conversions lead to values whose use causes undefined behavior. For the same reasons, conversions between pointers to member functions, and in particular, the conversion from a pointer to a const member function to a pointer to a non-const member function, are not covered.  — end note ]

The unary * operator performs indirection: the expression to which it is applied shall be a pointer to an object type, or a pointer to a function type and the result is an lvalue referring to the object or function to which the expression points. If the type of the expression is “pointer to T,” the type of the result is “T.” [ Note: indirection through a pointer to an incomplete type (other than cv void) is valid. The lvalue thus obtained can be used in limited ways (to initialize a reference, for example); this lvalue must not be converted to a prvalue, see [conv.lval].  — end note ]

The result of each of the following unary operators is a prvalue.

The result of the unary & operator is a pointer to its operand. The operand shall be an lvalue or a qualified-id. If the operand is a qualified-id naming a non-static member m of some class C with type T, the result has type “pointer to member of class C of type T” and is a prvalue designating C::m. Otherwise, if the type of the expression is T, the result has type “pointer to T” and is a prvalue that is the address of the designated object ([intro.memory]) or a pointer to the designated function. [ Note: In particular, the address of an object of type “cv T” is “pointer to cv T”, with the same cv-qualification.  — end note ] [ Example:

struct A { int i; };
struct B : A { };
... &B::i ...       // has type int A::*

 — end example ] [ Note: a pointer to member formed from a mutable non-static data member ([dcl.stc]) does not reflect the mutable specifier associated with the non-static data member.  — end note ]

A pointer to member is only formed when an explicit & is used and its operand is a qualified-id not enclosed in parentheses. [ Note: that is, the expression &(qualified-id), where the qualified-id is enclosed in parentheses, does not form an expression of type “pointer to member.” Neither does qualified-id, because there is no implicit conversion from a qualified-id for a non-static member function to the type “pointer to member function” as there is from an lvalue of function type to the type “pointer to function” ([conv.func]). Nor is &unqualified-id a pointer to member, even within the scope of the unqualified-id's class.  — end note ]

If & is applied to an lvalue of incomplete class type and the complete type declares operator&(), it is unspecified whether the operator has the built-in meaning or the operator function is called. The operand of & shall not be a bit-field.

The address of an overloaded function (Clause [over]) can be taken only in a context that uniquely determines which version of the overloaded function is referred to (see [over.over]). [ Note: since the context might determine whether the operand is a static or non-static member function, the context can also affect whether the expression has type “pointer to function” or “pointer to member function.”  — end note ]

The operand of the unary + operator shall have arithmetic, unscoped enumeration, or pointer type and the result is the value of the argument. Integral promotion is performed on integral or enumeration operands. The type of the result is the type of the promoted operand.

The operand of the unary - operator shall have arithmetic or unscoped enumeration type and the result is the negation of its operand. Integral promotion is performed on integral or enumeration operands. The negative of an unsigned quantity is computed by subtracting its value from 2ⁿ, where n is the number of bits in the promoted operand. The type of the result is the type of the promoted operand.

The operand of the logical negation operator ! is contextually converted to bool (Clause [conv]); its value is true if the converted operand is false and false otherwise. The type of the result is bool.

The operand of ~ shall have integral or unscoped enumeration type; the result is the one's complement of its operand. Integral promotions are performed. The type of the result is the type of the promoted operand. There is an ambiguity in the unary-expression ~X(), where X is a class-name or decltype-specifier. The ambiguity is resolved in favor of treating ~ as a unary complement rather than treating ~X as referring to a destructor.

The operand of prefix ++ is modified by adding 1, or set to true if it is bool (this use is deprecated). The operand shall be a modifiable lvalue. The type of the operand shall be an arithmetic type or a pointer to a completely-defined object type. The result is the updated operand; it is an lvalue, and it is a bit-field if the operand is a bit-field. If x is not of type bool, the expression ++x is equivalent to x+=1 [ Note: See the discussions of addition ([expr.add]) and assignment operators ([expr.ass]) for information on conversions.  — end note ]

The operand of prefix -- is modified by subtracting 1. The operand shall not be of type bool. The requirements on the operand of prefix -- and the properties of its result are otherwise the same as those of prefix ++. [ Note: For postfix increment and decrement, see [expr.post.incr].  — end note ]

The sizeof operator yields the number of bytes in the object representation of its operand. The operand is either an expression, which is an unevaluated operand (Clause [expr]), or a parenthesized type-id. The sizeof operator shall not be applied to an expression that has function or incomplete type, to an enumeration type whose underlying type is not fixed before all its enumerators have been declared, to the parenthesized name of such types, or to a glvalue that designates a bit-field. sizeof(char), sizeof(signed char) and sizeof(unsigned char) are 1. The result of sizeof applied to any other fundamental type ([basic.fundamental]) is implementation-defined. [ Note: in particular, sizeof(bool), sizeof(char16_t), sizeof(char32_t), and sizeof(wchar_t) are implementation-defined.75  — end note ] [ Note: See [intro.memory] for the definition of byte and [basic.types] for the definition of object representation.  — end note ]

When applied to a reference or a reference type, the result is the size of the referenced type. When applied to a class, the result is the number of bytes in an object of that class including any padding required for placing objects of that type in an array. The size of a most derived class shall be greater than zero ([intro.object]). The result of applying sizeof to a base class subobject is the size of the base class type.76 When applied to an array, the result is the total number of bytes in the array. This implies that the size of an array of n elements is n times the size of an element.

The sizeof operator can be applied to a pointer to a function, but shall not be applied directly to a function.

The lvalue-to-rvalue ([conv.lval]), array-to-pointer ([conv.array]), and function-to-pointer ([conv.func]) standard conversions are not applied to the operand of sizeof.

The identifier in a sizeof... expression shall name a parameter pack. The sizeof... operator yields the number of arguments provided for the parameter pack identifier. A sizeof... expression is a pack expansion ([temp.variadic]). [ Example:

template<class... Types>
struct count {
  static const std::size_t value = sizeof...(Types);
};

 — end example ]

The result of sizeof and sizeof... is a constant of type std::size_t. [ Note: std::size_t is defined in the standard header <cstddef> ([support.types]).  — end note ]

The new-expression attempts to create an object of the type-id ([dcl.name]) or new-type-id to which it is applied. The type of that object is the allocated type. This type shall be a complete object type, but not an abstract class type or array thereof ([intro.object], [basic.types], [class.abstract]). It is implementation-defined whether over-aligned types are supported ([basic.align]). [ Note: because references are not objects, references cannot be created by new-expressions.  — end note ] [ Note: the type-id may be a cv-qualified type, in which case the object created by the new-expression has a cv-qualified type.  — end note ]

new-expression:
    ::opt new new-placementopt new-type-id new-initializeropt 
    ::opt new new-placementopt ( type-id ) new-initializeropt

new-placement:
    ( expression-list )

new-type-id:
    type-specifier-seq new-declaratoropt

new-declarator:
    ptr-operator new-declaratoropt 
    noptr-new-declarator

noptr-new-declarator:
    [ expression ] attribute-specifier-seqopt
    noptr-new-declarator [ constant-expression ] attribute-specifier-seqopt

new-initializer:
    ( expression-listopt )
    braced-init-list

Entities created by a new-expression have dynamic storage duration ([basic.stc.dynamic]). [ Note: the lifetime of such an entity is not necessarily restricted to the scope in which it is created.  — end note ] If the entity is a non-array object, the new-expression returns a pointer to the object created. If it is an array, the new-expression returns a pointer to the initial element of the array.

If the auto type-specifier appears in the type-specifier-seq of a new-type-id or type-id of a new-expression, the new-expression shall contain a new-initializer of the form

( assignment-expression )

The allocated type is deduced from the new-initializer as follows: Let e be the assignment-expression in the new-initializer and T be the new-type-id or type-id of the new-expression, then the allocated type is the type deduced for the variable x in the invented declaration ([dcl.spec.auto]):

T x(e);

[ Example:

new auto(1);                    // allocated type is int
auto x = new auto('a');         // allocated type is char, x is of type char*

 — end example ]

The new-type-id in a new-expression is the longest possible sequence of new-declarators. [ Note: this prevents ambiguities between the declarator operators &, &&, *, and [] and their expression counterparts.  — end note ] [ Example:

new int * i;                    // syntax error: parsed as (new int*) i, not as (new int)*i

The * is the pointer declarator and not the multiplication operator.  — end example ]

[ Note: parentheses in a new-type-id of a new-expression can have surprising effects. [ Example:

new int(*[10])();               // error

is ill-formed because the binding is

(new int) (*[10])();            // error

Instead, the explicitly parenthesized version of the new operator can be used to create objects of compound types ([basic.compound]):

new (int (*[10])());

allocates an array of 10 pointers to functions (taking no argument and returning int.  — end example ]  — end note ]

When the allocated object is an array (that is, the noptr-new-declarator syntax is used or the new-type-id or type-id denotes an array type), the new-expression yields a pointer to the initial element (if any) of the array. [ Note: both new int and new int[10] have type int* and the type of new int[i][10] is int (*)[10]  — end note ] The attribute-specifier-seq in a noptr-new-declarator appertains to the associated array type.

Every constant-expression in a noptr-new-declarator shall be a converted constant expression ([expr.const]) of type std::size_t and shall evaluate to a strictly positive value. The expression in a noptr-new-declaratoris implicitly converted to std::size_t. [ Example: given the definition int n = 42, new float[n][5] is well-formed (because n is the expression of a noptr-new-declarator), but new float[5][n] is ill-formed (because n is not a constant expression).  — end example ]

The expression in a noptr-new-declarator is erroneous if:

• (7.1)

  the expression is of non-class type and its value before converting to std::size_t is less than zero;

• (7.2)

  the expression is of class type and its value before application of the second standard conversion ([over.ics.user])77 is less than zero;

• (7.3)

  its value is such that the size of the allocated object would exceed the implementation-defined limit (annex [implimits]); or

• (7.4)

  the new-initializer is a braced-init-list and the number of array elements for which initializers are provided (including the terminating '\0' in a string literal ([lex.string])) exceeds the number of elements to initialize.

If the expression, after converting to std::size_t, is a core constant expression and the expression is erroneous, the program is ill-formed. Otherwise, a new-expression with an erroneous expression does not call an allocation function and terminates by throwing an exception of a type that would match a handler ([except.handle]) of type std::bad_array_new_length ([new.badlength]). When the value of the expression is zero, the allocation function is called to allocate an array with no elements.

A new-expression may obtain storage for the object by calling an allocation function ([basic.stc.dynamic.allocation]). If the new-expression terminates by throwing an exception, it may release storage by calling a deallocation function ([basic.stc.dynamic.deallocation]). If the allocated type is a non-array type, the allocation function's name is operator new and the deallocation function's name is operator delete. If the allocated type is an array type, the allocation function's name is operator new[] and the deallocation function's name is operator delete[]. [ Note: an implementation shall provide default definitions for the global allocation functions ([basic.stc.dynamic], [new.delete.single], [new.delete.array]). A C++ program can provide alternative definitions of these functions ([replacement.functions]) and/or class-specific versions ([class.free]).  — end note ]

If the new-expression begins with a unary :: operator, the allocation function's name is looked up in the global scope. Otherwise, if the allocated type is a class type T or array thereof, the allocation function's name is looked up in the scope of T. If this lookup fails to find the name, or if the allocated type is not a class type, the allocation function's name is looked up in the global scope.

An implementation is allowed to omit a call to a replaceable global allocation function ([new.delete.single], [new.delete.array]). When it does so, the storage is instead provided by the implementation or provided by extending the allocation of another new-expression. The implementation may extend the allocation of a new-expression e1 to provide storage for a new-expression e2 if the following would be true were the allocation not extended:

• (10.1)

  the evaluation of e1 is sequenced before the evaluation of e2, and

• (10.2)

  e2 is evaluated whenever e1 obtains storage, and

• (10.3)

  both e1 and e2 invoke the same replaceable global allocation function, and

• (10.4)

  if the allocation function invoked by e1 and e2 is throwing, any exceptions thrown in the evaluation of either e1 or e2 would be first caught in the same handler, and

• (10.5)

  the pointer values produced by e1 and e2 are operands to evaluated delete-expressions, and

• (10.6)

  the evaluation of e2 is sequenced before the evaluation of the delete-expression whose operand is the pointer value produced by e1.

[ Example:

  void mergeable(int x) {
    // These allocations are safe for merging:
    std::unique_ptr<char[]> a{new (std::nothrow) char[8]};
    std::unique_ptr<char[]> b{new (std::nothrow) char[8]};
    std::unique_ptr<char[]> c{new (std::nothrow) char[x]};

    g(a.get(), b.get(), c.get());
  }

  void unmergeable(int x) {
    std::unique_ptr<char[]> a{new char[8]};
    try {
      // Merging this allocation would change its catch handler.
      std::unique_ptr<char[]> b{new char[x]};
    } catch (const std::bad_alloc& e) {
      std::cerr << "Allocation failed: " << e.what() << std::endl;
      throw;
    }
  }

 — end example ]

When a new-expression calls an allocation function and that allocation has not been extended, the new-expression passes the amount of space requested to the allocation function as the first argument of type std::size_t. That argument shall be no less than the size of the object being created; it may be greater than the size of the object being created only if the object is an array. For arrays of char and unsigned char, the difference between the result of the new-expression and the address returned by the allocation function shall be an integral multiple of the strictest fundamental alignment requirement ([basic.align]) of any object type whose size is no greater than the size of the array being created. [ Note: Because allocation functions are assumed to return pointers to storage that is appropriately aligned for objects of any type with fundamental alignment, this constraint on array allocation overhead permits the common idiom of allocating character arrays into which objects of other types will later be placed.  — end note ]

When a new-expression calls an allocation function and that allocation has been extended, the size argument to the allocation call shall be no greater than the sum of the sizes for the omitted calls as specified above, plus the size for the extended call had it not been extended, plus any padding necessary to align the allocated objects within the allocated memory.

The new-placement syntax is used to supply additional arguments to an allocation function. If used, overload resolution is performed on a function call created by assembling an argument list consisting of the amount of space requested (the first argument) and the expressions in the new-placement part of the new-expression (the second and succeeding arguments). The first of these arguments has type std::size_t and the remaining arguments have the corresponding types of the expressions in the new-placement.

[ Example:

• (14.1)

  new T results in a call of operator new(sizeof(T)),

• (14.2)

  new(2,f) T results in a call of operator new(sizeof(T),2,f),

• (14.3)

  new T[5] results in a call of operator new[](sizeof(T)*5+x), and

• (14.4)

  new(2,f) T[5] results in a call of operator new[](sizeof(T)*5+y,2,f).

Here, x and y are non-negative unspecified values representing array allocation overhead; the result of the new-expression will be offset by this amount from the value returned by operator new[]. This overhead may be applied in all array new-expressions, including those referencing the library function operator new[](std::size_t, void*) and other placement allocation functions. The amount of overhead may vary from one invocation of new to another.  — end example ]

[ Note: unless an allocation function is declared with a non-throwing exception-specification ([except.spec]), it indicates failure to allocate storage by throwing a std::bad_alloc exception (Clause [except], [bad.alloc]); it returns a non-null pointer otherwise. If the allocation function is declared with a non-throwing exception-specification, it returns null to indicate failure to allocate storage and a non-null pointer otherwise.  — end note ] If the allocation function returns null, initialization shall not be done, the deallocation function shall not be called, and the value of the new-expression shall be null.

[ Note: when the allocation function returns a value other than null, it must be a pointer to a block of storage in which space for the object has been reserved. The block of storage is assumed to be appropriately aligned and of the requested size. The address of the created object will not necessarily be the same as that of the block if the object is an array.  — end note ]

A new-expression that creates an object of type T initializes that object as follows:

• (17.1)

  If the new-initializer is omitted, the object is default-initialized ([dcl.init]). [ Note: If no initialization is performed, the object has an indeterminate value.  — end note ]

• (17.2)

  Otherwise, the new-initializer is interpreted according to the initialization rules of [dcl.init] for direct-initialization.

The invocation of the allocation function is indeterminately sequenced with respect to the evaluations of expressions in the new-initializer. Initialization of the allocated object is sequenced before the value computation of the new-expression. It is unspecified whether expressions in the new-initializer are evaluated if the allocation function returns the null pointer or exits using an exception.

If the new-expression creates an object or an array of objects of class type, access and ambiguity control are done for the allocation function, the deallocation function ([class.free]), and the constructor ([class.ctor]). If the new-expression creates an array of objects of class type, the destructor is potentially invoked ([class.dtor]).

If any part of the object initialization described above78 terminates by throwing an exception, storage has been obtained for the object, and a suitable deallocation function can be found, the deallocation function is called to free the memory in which the object was being constructed, after which the exception continues to propagate in the context of the new-expression. If no unambiguous matching deallocation function can be found, propagating the exception does not cause the object's memory to be freed. [ Note: This is appropriate when the called allocation function does not allocate memory; otherwise, it is likely to result in a memory leak.  — end note ]

If the new-expression begins with a unary :: operator, the deallocation function's name is looked up in the global scope. Otherwise, if the allocated type is a class type T or an array thereof, the deallocation function's name is looked up in the scope of T. If this lookup fails to find the name, or if the allocated type is not a class type or array thereof, the deallocation function's name is looked up in the global scope.

A declaration of a placement deallocation function matches the declaration of a placement allocation function if it has the same number of parameters and, after parameter transformations ([dcl.fct]), all parameter types except the first are identical. If the lookup finds a single matching deallocation function, that function will be called; otherwise, no deallocation function will be called. If the lookup finds the two-parameter form of a usual deallocation function ([basic.stc.dynamic.deallocation]) and that function, considered as a placement deallocation function, would have been selected as a match for the allocation function, the program is ill-formed. For a non-placement allocation function, the normal deallocation function lookup is used to find the matching deallocation function ([expr.delete]) [ Example:

struct S { 
  // Placement allocation function:
  static void* operator new(std::size_t, std::size_t); 

  // Usual (non-placement) deallocation function:
  static void operator delete(void*, std::size_t); 
}; 

S* p = new (0) S;   // ill-formed: non-placement deallocation function matches 
                    // placement allocation function 

 — end example ]

If a new-expression calls a deallocation function, it passes the value returned from the allocation function call as the first argument of type void*. If a placement deallocation function is called, it is passed the same additional arguments as were passed to the placement allocation function, that is, the same arguments as those specified with the new-placement syntax. If the implementation is allowed to make a copy of any argument as part of the call to the allocation function, it is allowed to make a copy (of the same original value) as part of the call to the deallocation function or to reuse the copy made as part of the call to the allocation function. If the copy is elided in one place, it need not be elided in the other.

The delete-expression operator destroys a most derived object ([intro.object]) or array created by a new-expression.

delete-expression:
    ::opt delete cast-expression
    ::opt delete [ ] cast-expression

The first alternative is for non-array objects, and the second is for arrays. Whenever the delete keyword is immediately followed by empty square brackets, it shall be interpreted as the second alternative.79 The operand shall be of pointer to object type or of class type. If of class type, the operand is contextually implicitly converted (Clause [conv]) to a pointer to object type.80 The delete-expression's result has type void.

If the operand has a class type, the operand is converted to a pointer type by calling the above-mentioned conversion function, and the converted operand is used in place of the original operand for the remainder of this section. In the first alternative (delete object), the value of the operand of delete may be a null pointer value, a pointer to a non-array object created by a previous new-expression, or a pointer to a subobject ([intro.object]) representing a base class of such an object (Clause [class.derived]). If not, the behavior is undefined. In the second alternative (delete array), the value of the operand of delete may be a null pointer value or a pointer value that resulted from a previous array new-expression.81 If not, the behavior is undefined. [ Note: this means that the syntax of the delete-expression must match the type of the object allocated by new, not the syntax of the new-expression.  — end note ] [ Note: a pointer to a const type can be the operand of a delete-expression; it is not necessary to cast away the constness ([expr.const.cast]) of the pointer expression before it is used as the operand of the delete-expression.  — end note ]

In the first alternative (delete object), if the static type of the object to be deleted is different from its dynamic type, the static type shall be a base class of the dynamic type of the object to be deleted and the static type shall have a virtual destructor or the behavior is undefined. In the second alternative (delete array) if the dynamic type of the object to be deleted differs from its static type, the behavior is undefined.

The cast-expression in a delete-expression shall be evaluated exactly once.

If the object being deleted has incomplete class type at the point of deletion and the complete class has a non-trivial destructor or a deallocation function, the behavior is undefined.

If the value of the operand of the delete-expression is not a null pointer value, the delete-expression will invoke the destructor (if any) for the object or the elements of the array being deleted. In the case of an array, the elements will be destroyed in order of decreasing address (that is, in reverse order of the completion of their constructor; see [class.base.init]).

If the value of the operand of the delete-expression is not a null pointer value, then:

• (7.1)

  If the allocation call for the new-expression for the object to be deleted was not omitted and the allocation was not extended ([expr.new]), the delete-expression shall call a deallocation function ([basic.stc.dynamic.deallocation]). The value returned from the allocation call of the new-expression shall be passed as the first argument to the deallocation function.

• (7.2)

  Otherwise, if the allocation was extended or was provided by extending the allocation of another new-expression, and the delete-expression for every other pointer value produced by a new-expression that had storage provided by the extended new-expression has been evaluated, the delete-expression shall call a deallocation function. The value returned from the allocation call of the extended new-expression shall be passed as the first argument to the deallocation function.

• (7.3)

  Otherwise, the delete-expression will not call a deallocation function ([basic.stc.dynamic.deallocation]).

Otherwise, it is unspecified whether the deallocation function will be called. [ Note: The deallocation function is called regardless of whether the destructor for the object or some element of the array throws an exception.  — end note ]

[ Note: An implementation provides default definitions of the global deallocation functions operator delete() for non-arrays ([new.delete.single]) and operator delete[]() for arrays ([new.delete.array]). A C++ program can provide alternative definitions of these functions ([replacement.functions]), and/or class-specific versions ([class.free]).  — end note ]

When the keyword delete in a delete-expression is preceded by the unary :: operator, the deallocation function's name is looked up in global scope. Otherwise, the lookup considers class-specific deallocation functions ([class.free]). If no class-specific deallocation function is found, the deallocation function's name is looked up in global scope.

If the type is complete and if deallocation function lookup finds both a usual deallocation function with only a pointer parameter and a usual deallocation function with both a pointer parameter and a size parameter, then the selected deallocation function shall be the one with two parameters. Otherwise, the selected deallocation function shall be the function with one parameter.

When a delete-expression is executed, the selected deallocation function shall be called with the address of the block of storage to be reclaimed as its first argument and (if the two-parameter deallocation function is used) the size of the block as its second argument.82

Access and ambiguity control are done for both the deallocation function and the destructor ([class.dtor], [class.free]).

An alignof expression yields the alignment requirement of its operand type. The operand shall be a type-id representing a complete object type, or an array thereof, or a reference to one of those types.

The result is an integral constant of type std::size_t.

When alignof is applied to a reference type, the result is the alignment of the referenced type. When alignof is applied to an array type, the result is the alignment of the element type.

The noexcept operator determines whether the evaluation of its operand, which is an unevaluated operand (Clause [expr]), can throw an exception ([except.throw]).

noexcept-expression:
  noexcept ( expression )

The result of the noexcept operator is a constant of type bool and is a prvalue.

The result of the noexcept operator is false if in a potentially-evaluated context the expression would contain

• (3.1)

  a potentially-evaluated call83 to a function, member function, function pointer, or member function pointer that does not have a non-throwing exception-specification ([except.spec]), unless the call is a constant expression ([expr.const]),

• (3.2)

  a potentially-evaluated throw-expression ([except.throw]),

• (3.3)

  a potentially-evaluated dynamic_cast expression dynamic_cast<T>(v), where T is a reference type, that requires a run-time check ([expr.dynamic.cast]), or

• (3.4)

  a potentially-evaluated typeid expression ([expr.typeid]) applied to a glvalue expression whose type is a polymorphic class type ([class.virtual]).

Otherwise, the result is true.