16 Overloading [over]

16.3 Overload resolution [over.match]

16.3.3 Best viable function [over.match.best]

Define ICSi(F) as follows:

Given these definitions, a viable function F1 is defined to be a better function than another viable function F2 if for all arguments i, ICSi(F1) is not a worse conversion sequence than ICSi(F2), and then

If there is exactly one viable function that is a better function than all other viable functions, then it is the one selected by overload resolution; otherwise the call is ill-formed.132 [Example:

void Fcn(const int*,  short);
void Fcn(int*, int);

int i;
short s = 0;

void f() {
  Fcn(&i, s);       // is ambiguous because &i  int* is better than &i  const int*
                    // but s  short is also better than s  int

  Fcn(&i, 1L);      // calls Fcn(int*, int), because &i  int* is better than &i  const int*
                    // and 1L  short and 1L  int are indistinguishable

  Fcn(&i, 'c');     // calls Fcn(int*, int), because &i  int* is better than &i  const int*
                    // and c  int is better than c  short
}

end example]

If the best viable function resolves to a function for which multiple declarations were found, and if at least two of these declarations — or the declarations they refer to in the case of using-declarations — specify a default argument that made the function viable, the program is ill-formed. [Example:

namespace A {
  extern "C" void f(int = 5);
}
namespace B {
  extern "C" void f(int = 5);
}

using A::f;
using B::f;

void use() {
  f(3);             // OK, default argument was not used for viability
  f();              // Error: found default argument twice
}

end example]

If a function is a static member function, this definition means that the first argument, the implied object argument, has no effect in the determination of whether the function is better or worse than any other function.

The algorithm for selecting the best viable function is linear in the number of viable functions. Run a simple tournament to find a function W that is not worse than any opponent it faced. Although another function F that W did not face might be at least as good as W, F cannot be the best function because at some point in the tournament F encountered another function G such that F was not better than G. Hence, W is either the best function or there is no best function. So, make a second pass over the viable functions to verify that W is better than all other functions.

16.3.3.1 Implicit conversion sequences [over.best.ics]

An implicit conversion sequence is a sequence of conversions used to convert an argument in a function call to the type of the corresponding parameter of the function being called. The sequence of conversions is an implicit conversion as defined in Clause [conv], which means it is governed by the rules for initialization of an object or reference by a single expression ([dcl.init], [dcl.init.ref]).

Implicit conversion sequences are concerned only with the type, cv-qualification, and value category of the argument and how these are converted to match the corresponding properties of the parameter. Other properties, such as the lifetime, storage class, alignment, accessibility of the argument, whether the argument is a bit-field, and whether a function is deleted, are ignored. So, although an implicit conversion sequence can be defined for a given argument-parameter pair, the conversion from the argument to the parameter might still be ill-formed in the final analysis.

A well-formed implicit conversion sequence is one of the following forms:

However, if the target is

  • the first parameter of a constructor or

  • the implicit object parameter of a user-defined conversion function

and the constructor or user-defined conversion function is a candidate by

user-defined conversion sequences are not considered. [Note: These rules prevent more than one user-defined conversion from being applied during overload resolution, thereby avoiding infinite recursion. end note] [Example:

  struct Y { Y(int); };
  struct A { operator int(); };
  Y y1 = A();       // error: A​::​operator int() is not a candidate

  struct X { };
  struct B { operator X(); };
  B b;
  X x({b});         // error: B​::​operator X() is not a candidate

end example]

For the case where the parameter type is a reference, see [over.ics.ref].

When the parameter type is not a reference, the implicit conversion sequence models a copy-initialization of the parameter from the argument expression. The implicit conversion sequence is the one required to convert the argument expression to a prvalue of the type of the parameter. [Note: When the parameter has a class type, this is a conceptual conversion defined for the purposes of Clause [over]; the actual initialization is defined in terms of constructors and is not a conversion. end note] Any difference in top-level cv-qualification is subsumed by the initialization itself and does not constitute a conversion. [Example: A parameter of type A can be initialized from an argument of type const A. The implicit conversion sequence for that case is the identity sequence; it contains no “conversion” from const A to A. end example] When the parameter has a class type and the argument expression has the same type, the implicit conversion sequence is an identity conversion. When the parameter has a class type and the argument expression has a derived class type, the implicit conversion sequence is a derived-to-base Conversion from the derived class to the base class. [Note: There is no such standard conversion; this derived-to-base Conversion exists only in the description of implicit conversion sequences. end note] A derived-to-base Conversion has Conversion rank ([over.ics.scs]).

In all contexts, when converting to the implicit object parameter or when converting to the left operand of an assignment operation only standard conversion sequences are allowed.

If no conversions are required to match an argument to a parameter type, the implicit conversion sequence is the standard conversion sequence consisting of the identity conversion ([over.ics.scs]).

If no sequence of conversions can be found to convert an argument to a parameter type, an implicit conversion sequence cannot be formed.

If several different sequences of conversions exist that each convert the argument to the parameter type, the implicit conversion sequence associated with the parameter is defined to be the unique conversion sequence designated the ambiguous conversion sequence. For the purpose of ranking implicit conversion sequences as described in [over.ics.rank], the ambiguous conversion sequence is treated as a user-defined conversion sequence that is indistinguishable from any other user-defined conversion sequence. [Note: This rule prevents a function from becoming non-viable because of an ambiguous conversion sequence for one of its parameters. [Example:

class B;
class A { A (B&);};
class B { operator A (); };
class C { C (B&); };
void f(A) { }
void f(C) { }
B b;
f(b);               // ill-formed: ambiguous because there is a conversion b  C (via constructor)
                    // and an (ambiguous) conversion b  A (via constructor or conversion function)
void f(B) { }
f(b);               // OK, unambiguous

end example] end note] If a function that uses the ambiguous conversion sequence is selected as the best viable function, the call will be ill-formed because the conversion of one of the arguments in the call is ambiguous.

The three forms of implicit conversion sequences mentioned above are defined in the following subclauses.

16.3.3.1.1 Standard conversion sequences [over.ics.scs]

Table 13 summarizes the conversions defined in Clause [conv] and partitions them into four disjoint categories: Lvalue Transformation, Qualification Adjustment, Promotion, and Conversion. [Note: These categories are orthogonal with respect to value category, cv-qualification, and data representation: the Lvalue Transformations do not change the cv-qualification or data representation of the type; the Qualification Adjustments do not change the value category or data representation of the type; and the Promotions and Conversions do not change the value category or cv-qualification of the type. end note]

[Note: As described in Clause [conv], a standard conversion sequence is either the Identity conversion by itself (that is, no conversion) or consists of one to three conversions from the other four categories. If there are two or more conversions in the sequence, the conversions are applied in the canonical order: Lvalue Transformation, Promotion or Conversion, Qualification Adjustment. end note]

Each conversion in Table 13 also has an associated rank (Exact Match, Promotion, or Conversion). These are used to rank standard conversion sequences. The rank of a conversion sequence is determined by considering the rank of each conversion in the sequence and the rank of any reference binding. If any of those has Conversion rank, the sequence has Conversion rank; otherwise, if any of those has Promotion rank, the sequence has Promotion rank; otherwise, the sequence has Exact Match rank.

Table 13 — Conversions
Conversion Category Rank Subclause
No conversions required Identity
Lvalue-to-rvalue conversion [conv.lval]
Array-to-pointer conversion Lvalue Transformation [conv.array]
Function-to-pointer conversion Exact Match [conv.func]
Qualification conversions [conv.qual]
Function pointer conversion Qualification Adjustment [conv.fctptr]
Integral promotions [conv.prom]
Floating-point promotion Promotion Promotion [conv.fpprom]
Integral conversions [conv.integral]
Floating-point conversions [conv.double]
Floating-integral conversions [conv.fpint]
Pointer conversions Conversion Conversion [conv.ptr]
Pointer to member conversions [conv.mem]
Boolean conversions [conv.bool]

16.3.3.1.2 User-defined conversion sequences [over.ics.user]

A user-defined conversion sequence consists of an initial standard conversion sequence followed by a user-defined conversion ([class.conv]) followed by a second standard conversion sequence. If the user-defined conversion is specified by a constructor, the initial standard conversion sequence converts the source type to the type required by the argument of the constructor. If the user-defined conversion is specified by a conversion function, the initial standard conversion sequence converts the source type to the implicit object parameter of the conversion function.

The second standard conversion sequence converts the result of the user-defined conversion to the target type for the sequence. Since an implicit conversion sequence is an initialization, the special rules for initialization by user-defined conversion apply when selecting the best user-defined conversion for a user-defined conversion sequence (see [over.match.best] and [over.best.ics]).

If the user-defined conversion is specified by a specialization of a conversion function template, the second standard conversion sequence shall have exact match rank.

A conversion of an expression of class type to the same class type is given Exact Match rank, and a conversion of an expression of class type to a base class of that type is given Conversion rank, in spite of the fact that a constructor (i.e., a user-defined conversion function) is called for those cases.

16.3.3.1.3 Ellipsis conversion sequences [over.ics.ellipsis]

An ellipsis conversion sequence occurs when an argument in a function call is matched with the ellipsis parameter specification of the function called (see [expr.call]).

16.3.3.1.4 Reference binding [over.ics.ref]

When a parameter of reference type binds directly to an argument expression, the implicit conversion sequence is the identity conversion, unless the argument expression has a type that is a derived class of the parameter type, in which case the implicit conversion sequence is a derived-to-base Conversion ([over.best.ics]). [Example:

struct A {};
struct B : public A {} b;
int f(A&);
int f(B&);
int i = f(b);       // calls f(B&), an exact match, rather than f(A&), a conversion

end example] If the parameter binds directly to the result of applying a conversion function to the argument expression, the implicit conversion sequence is a user-defined conversion sequence, with the second standard conversion sequence either an identity conversion or, if the conversion function returns an entity of a type that is a derived class of the parameter type, a derived-to-base Conversion.

When a parameter of reference type is not bound directly to an argument expression, the conversion sequence is the one required to convert the argument expression to the referenced type according to [over.best.ics]. Conceptually, this conversion sequence corresponds to copy-initializing a temporary of the referenced type with the argument expression. Any difference in top-level cv-qualification is subsumed by the initialization itself and does not constitute a conversion.

Except for an implicit object parameter, for which see [over.match.funcs], a standard conversion sequence cannot be formed if it requires binding an lvalue reference other than a reference to a non-volatile const type to an rvalue or binding an rvalue reference to an lvalue other than a function lvalue. [Note: This means, for example, that a candidate function cannot be a viable function if it has a non-const lvalue reference parameter (other than the implicit object parameter) and the corresponding argument would require a temporary to be created to initialize the lvalue reference (see [dcl.init.ref]). end note]

Other restrictions on binding a reference to a particular argument that are not based on the types of the reference and the argument do not affect the formation of a standard conversion sequence, however. [Example: A function with an “lvalue reference to int” parameter can be a viable candidate even if the corresponding argument is an int bit-field. The formation of implicit conversion sequences treats the int bit-field as an int lvalue and finds an exact match with the parameter. If the function is selected by overload resolution, the call will nonetheless be ill-formed because of the prohibition on binding a non-const lvalue reference to a bit-field ([dcl.init.ref]). end example]

16.3.3.1.5 List-initialization sequence [over.ics.list]

When an argument is an initializer list ([dcl.init.list]), it is not an expression and special rules apply for converting it to a parameter type.

If the parameter type is an aggregate class X and the initializer list has a single element of type cv U, where U is X or a class derived from X, the implicit conversion sequence is the one required to convert the element to the parameter type.

Otherwise, if the parameter type is a character array133 and the initializer list has a single element that is an appropriately-typed string literal ([dcl.init.string]), the implicit conversion sequence is the identity conversion.

Otherwise, if the parameter type is std​::​initializer_­list<X> and all the elements of the initializer list can be implicitly converted to X, the implicit conversion sequence is the worst conversion necessary to convert an element of the list to X, or if the initializer list has no elements, the identity conversion. This conversion can be a user-defined conversion even in the context of a call to an initializer-list constructor. [Example:

void f(std::initializer_list<int>);
f( {} );                // OK: f(initializer_­list<int>) identity conversion
f( {1,2,3} );           // OK: f(initializer_­list<int>) identity conversion
f( {'a','b'} );         // OK: f(initializer_­list<int>) integral promotion
f( {1.0} );             // error: narrowing

struct A {
  A(std::initializer_list<double>);             // #1
  A(std::initializer_list<complex<double>>);    // #2
  A(std::initializer_list<std::string>);        // #3
};
A a{ 1.0,2.0 };         // OK, uses #1

void g(A);
g({ "foo", "bar" });    // OK, uses #3

typedef int IA[3];
void h(const IA&);
h({ 1, 2, 3 });         // OK: identity conversion

end example]

Otherwise, if the parameter type is “array of N X”, if there exists an implicit conversion sequence for each element of the array from the corresponding element of the initializer list (or from {} if there is no such element), the implicit conversion sequence is the worst such implicit conversion sequence.

Otherwise, if the parameter is a non-aggregate class X and overload resolution per [over.match.list] chooses a single best constructor C of X to perform the initialization of an object of type X from the argument initializer list:

  • If C is not an initializer-list constructor and the initializer list has a single element of type cv U, where U is X or a class derived from X, the implicit conversion sequence has Exact Match rank if U is X, or Conversion rank if U is derived from X.

  • Otherwise, the implicit conversion sequence is a user-defined conversion sequence with the second standard conversion sequence an identity conversion.

If multiple constructors are viable but none is better than the others, the implicit conversion sequence is the ambiguous conversion sequence. User-defined conversions are allowed for conversion of the initializer list elements to the constructor parameter types except as noted in [over.best.ics]. [Example:

struct A {
  A(std::initializer_list<int>);
};
void f(A);
f( {'a', 'b'} );        // OK: f(A(std​::​initializer_­list<int>)) user-defined conversion

struct B {
  B(int, double);
};
void g(B);
g( {'a', 'b'} );        // OK: g(B(int, double)) user-defined conversion
g( {1.0, 1.0} );        // error: narrowing

void f(B);
f( {'a', 'b'} );        // error: ambiguous f(A) or f(B)

struct C {
  C(std::string);
};
void h(C);
h({"foo"});             // OK: h(C(std​::​string("foo")))

struct D {
  D(A, C);
};
void i(D);
i({ {1,2}, {"bar"} });  // OK: i(D(A(std​::​initializer_­list<int>{1,2}), C(std​::​string("bar"))))

end example]

Otherwise, if the parameter has an aggregate type which can be initialized from the initializer list according to the rules for aggregate initialization, the implicit conversion sequence is a user-defined conversion sequence with the second standard conversion sequence an identity conversion. [Example:

struct A {
  int m1;
  double m2;
};

void f(A);
f( {'a', 'b'} );        // OK: f(A(int,double)) user-defined conversion
f( {1.0} );             // error: narrowing

end example]

Otherwise, if the parameter is a reference, see [over.ics.ref]. [Note: The rules in this section will apply for initializing the underlying temporary for the reference. end note] [Example:

struct A {
  int m1;
  double m2;
};

void f(const A&);
f( {'a', 'b'} );        // OK: f(A(int,double)) user-defined conversion
f( {1.0} );             // error: narrowing

void g(const double &);
g({1});                 // same conversion as int to double

end example]

Otherwise, if the parameter type is not a class:

  • if the initializer list has one element that is not itself an initializer list, the implicit conversion sequence is the one required to convert the element to the parameter type; [Example:

    void f(int);
    f( {'a'} );             // OK: same conversion as char to int
    f( {1.0} );             // error: narrowing
    

    end example]

  • if the initializer list has no elements, the implicit conversion sequence is the identity conversion. [Example:

    void f(int);
    f( { } );               // OK: identity conversion
    

    end example]

In all cases other than those enumerated above, no conversion is possible.

Since there are no parameters of array type, this will only occur as the referenced type of a reference parameter.

16.3.3.2 Ranking implicit conversion sequences [over.ics.rank]

This subclause defines a partial ordering of implicit conversion sequences based on the relationships better conversion sequence and better conversion. If an implicit conversion sequence S1 is defined by these rules to be a better conversion sequence than S2, then it is also the case that S2 is a worse conversion sequence than S1. If conversion sequence S1 is neither better than nor worse than conversion sequence S2, S1 and S2 are said to be indistinguishable conversion sequences.

When comparing the basic forms of implicit conversion sequences (as defined in [over.best.ics])

Two implicit conversion sequences of the same form are indistinguishable conversion sequences unless one of the following rules applies:

  • List-initialization sequence L1 is a better conversion sequence than list-initialization sequence L2 if

    • L1 converts to std​::​initializer_­list<X> for some X and L2 does not, or, if not that,

    • L1 converts to type “array of N1 T”, L2 converts to type “array of N2 T”, and N1 is smaller than N2,

    even if one of the other rules in this paragraph would otherwise apply. [Example:

      void f1(int);                                 // #1
      void f1(std::initializer_list<long>);         // #2
      void g1() { f1({42}); }                       // chooses #2
    
      void f2(std::pair<const char*, const char*>); // #3
      void f2(std::initializer_list<std::string>);  // #4
      void g2() { f2({"foo","bar"}); }              // chooses #4
    

    end example]

  • Standard conversion sequence S1 is a better conversion sequence than standard conversion sequence S2 if

    • S1 is a proper subsequence of S2 (comparing the conversion sequences in the canonical form defined by [over.ics.scs], excluding any Lvalue Transformation; the identity conversion sequence is considered to be a subsequence of any non-identity conversion sequence) or, if not that,

    • the rank of S1 is better than the rank of S2, or S1 and S2 have the same rank and are distinguishable by the rules in the paragraph below, or, if not that,

    • S1 and S2 are reference bindings ([dcl.init.ref]) and neither refers to an implicit object parameter of a non-static member function declared without a ref-qualifier, and S1 binds an rvalue reference to an rvalue and S2 binds an lvalue reference [Example:

      int i;
      int f1();
      int&& f2();
      int g(const int&);
      int g(const int&&);
      int j = g(i);                   // calls g(const int&)
      int k = g(f1());                // calls g(const int&&)
      int l = g(f2());                // calls g(const int&&)
      
      struct A {
        A& operator<<(int);
        void p() &;
        void p() &&;
      };
      A& operator<<(A&&, char);
      A() << 1;                       // calls A​::​operator<<(int)
      A() << 'c';                     // calls operator<<(A&&, char)
      A a;
      a << 1;                         // calls A​::​operator<<(int)
      a << 'c';                       // calls A​::​operator<<(int)
      A().p();                        // calls A​::​p()&&
      a.p();                          // calls A​::​p()&
      

      end example] or, if not that,

    • S1 and S2 are reference bindings ([dcl.init.ref]) and S1 binds an lvalue reference to a function lvalue and S2 binds an rvalue reference to a function lvalue [Example:

      int f(void(&)());               // #1
      int f(void(&&)());              // #2
      void g();
      int i1 = f(g);                  // calls #1
      

      end example] or, if not that,

    • S1 and S2 differ only in their qualification conversion and yield similar types T1 and T2 ([conv.qual]), respectively, and the cv-qualification signature of type T1 is a proper subset of the cv-qualification signature of type T2 [Example:

      int f(const volatile int *);
      int f(const int *);
      int i;
      int j = f(&i);                  // calls f(const int*)
      

      end example] or, if not that,

    • S1 and S2 are reference bindings ([dcl.init.ref]), and the types to which the references refer are the same type except for top-level cv-qualifiers, and the type to which the reference initialized by S2 refers is more cv-qualified than the type to which the reference initialized by S1 refers. [Example:

      int f(const int &);
      int f(int &);
      int g(const int &);
      int g(int);
      
      int i;
      int j = f(i);                   // calls f(int &)
      int k = g(i);                   // ambiguous
      
      struct X {
        void f() const;
        void f();
      };
      void g(const X& a, X b) {
        a.f();                        // calls X​::​f() const
        b.f();                        // calls X​::​f()
      }

      end example]

  • User-defined conversion sequence U1 is a better conversion sequence than another user-defined conversion sequence U2 if they contain the same user-defined conversion function or constructor or they initialize the same class in an aggregate initialization and in either case the second standard conversion sequence of U1 is better than the second standard conversion sequence of U2. [Example:

    struct A {
      operator short();
    } a;
    int f(int);
    int f(float);
    int i = f(a);                   // calls f(int), because short  int is
                                    // better than short  float.
    

    end example]

Standard conversion sequences are ordered by their ranks: an Exact Match is a better conversion than a Promotion, which is a better conversion than a Conversion. Two conversion sequences with the same rank are indistinguishable unless one of the following rules applies:

  • A conversion that does not convert a pointer, a pointer to member, or std​::​nullptr_­t to bool is better than one that does.

  • A conversion that promotes an enumeration whose underlying type is fixed to its underlying type is better than one that promotes to the promoted underlying type, if the two are different.

  • If class B is derived directly or indirectly from class A, conversion of B* to A* is better than conversion of B* to void*, and conversion of A* to void* is better than conversion of B* to void*.

  • If class B is derived directly or indirectly from class A and class C is derived directly or indirectly from B,

    • conversion of C* to B* is better than conversion of C* to A*, [Example:

      struct A {};
      struct B : public A {};
      struct C : public B {};
      C* pc;
      int f(A*);
      int f(B*);
      int i = f(pc);                  // calls f(B*)
      

      end example]

    • binding of an expression of type C to a reference to type B is better than binding an expression of type C to a reference to type A,

    • conversion of A​::​* to B​::​* is better than conversion of A​::​* to C​::​*,

    • conversion of C to B is better than conversion of C to A,

    • conversion of B* to A* is better than conversion of C* to A*,

    • binding of an expression of type B to a reference to type A is better than binding an expression of type C to a reference to type A,

    • conversion of B​::​* to C​::​* is better than conversion of A​::​* to C​::​*, and

    • conversion of B to A is better than conversion of C to A.

    [Note: Compared conversion sequences will have different source types only in the context of comparing the second standard conversion sequence of an initialization by user-defined conversion (see [over.match.best]); in all other contexts, the source types will be the same and the target types will be different. end note]