7 Declarations [dcl.dcl]

There are two cv-qualifiers, const and volatile. If a cv-qualifier appears in a decl-specifier-seq, the init-declarator-list of the declaration shall not be empty. [ Note: [basic.type.qualifier] and [dcl.fct] describe how cv-qualifiers affect object and function types.  — end note ] Redundant cv-qualifications are ignored. [ Note: For example, these could be introduced by typedefs. — end note ]

[ Note: Declaring a variable const can affect its linkage ([dcl.stc]) and its usability in constant expressions ([expr.const]). As described in [dcl.init], the definition of an object or subobject of const-qualified type must specify an initializer or be subject to default-initialization.  — end note ]

A pointer or reference to a cv-qualified type need not actually point or refer to a cv-qualified object, but it is treated as if it does; a const-qualified access path cannot be used to modify an object even if the object referenced is a non-const object and can be modified through some other access path. [ Note: Cv-qualifiers are supported by the type system so that they cannot be subverted without casting ([expr.const.cast]).  — end note ]

Except that any class member declared mutable ([dcl.stc]) can be modified, any attempt to modify a const object during its lifetime ([basic.life]) results in undefined behavior. [ Example:

const int ci = 3;               // cv-qualified (initialized as required)
ci = 4;                         // ill-formed: attempt to modify const

int i = 2;                      // not cv-qualified
const int* cip;                 // pointer to const int
cip = &i;                       // OK: cv-qualified access path to unqualified
*cip = 4;                       // ill-formed: attempt to modify through ptr to const

int* ip;
ip = const_cast<int*>(cip);     // cast needed to convert const int* to int*
*ip = 4;                        // defined: *ip points to i, a non-const object

const int* ciq = new const int (3);     // initialized as required
int* iq = const_cast<int*>(ciq);        // cast required
*iq = 4;                                // undefined: modifies a const object

For another example

struct X {
  mutable int i;
  int j;
};
struct Y {
  X x;
  Y();
};

const Y y;
y.x.i++;                        // well-formed: mutable member can be modified
y.x.j++;                        // ill-formed: const-qualified member modified
Y* p = const_cast<Y*>(&y);      // cast away const-ness of y
p->x.i = 99;                    // well-formed: mutable member can be modified
p->x.j = 99;                    // undefined: modifies a const member

 — end example ]

If an attempt is made to refer to an object defined with a volatile-qualified type through the use of a glvalue with a non-volatile-qualified type, the program behavior is undefined.

[ Note: volatile is a hint to the implementation to avoid aggressive optimization involving the object because the value of the object might be changed by means undetectable by an implementation. See [intro.execution] for detailed semantics. In general, the semantics of volatile are intended to be the same in C++ as they are in C.  — end note ]

The simple type specifiers are

simple-type-specifier:
    nested-name-specifieropt type-name
    nested-name-specifier template simple-template-id
    char
    char16_t
    char32_t
    wchar_t
    bool
    short
    int
    long
    signed
    unsigned
    float
    double
    void
    auto
    decltype-specifier

type-name:
    class-name
    enum-name
    typedef-name
    simple-template-id

decltype-specifier:
  decltype ( expression )

The auto specifier is a placeholder for a type to be deduced ([dcl.spec.auto]). The other simple-type-specifiers specify either a previously-declared user-defined type or one of the fundamental types ([basic.fundamental]). Table [tab:simple.type.specifiers] summarizes the valid combinations of simple-type-specifiers and the types they specify.

When multiple simple-type-specifiers are allowed, they can be freely intermixed with other decl-specifiers in any order. [ Note: It is implementation-defined whether objects of char type and certain bit-fields ([class.bit]) are represented as signed or unsigned quantities. The signed specifier forces char objects and bit-fields to be signed; it is redundant in other contexts.  — end note ]

The type denoted by decltype(e) is defined as follows:

• (4.1)

  if e is an unparenthesized id-expression or an unparenthesized class member access ([expr.ref]), decltype(e) is the type of the entity named by e. If there is no such entity, or if e names a set of overloaded functions, the program is ill-formed;

• (4.2)

  otherwise, if e is an xvalue, decltype(e) is T&&, where T is the type of e;

• (4.3)

  otherwise, if e is an lvalue, decltype(e) is T&, where T is the type of e;

• (4.4)

  otherwise, decltype(e) is the type of e.

The operand of the decltype specifier is an unevaluated operand (Clause [expr]).

[ Example:

const int&& foo(); 
int i; 
struct A { double x; };
const A* a = new A(); 
decltype(foo()) x1 = i;         // type is const int&&
decltype(i) x2;                 // type is int
decltype(a->x) x3;              // type is double
decltype((a->x)) x4 = x3;       // type is const double&

 — end example ]

[ Note: in the case where the operand of a decltype-specifier is a function call and the return type of the function is a class type, a special rule ([expr.call]) ensures that the return type is not required to be complete (as it would be if the call appeared in a sub-expression or outside of a decltype-specifier). In this context, the common purpose of writing the expression is merely to refer to its type. In that sense, a decltype-specifier is analogous to a use of a typedef-name, so the usual reasons for requiring a complete type do not apply. In particular, it is not necessary to allocate storage for a temporary object or to enforce the semantic constraints associated with invoking the type's destructor. [ Example:

template<class T> struct A { ~A() = delete; };
template<class T> auto h()
  -> A<T>;
template<class T> auto i(T)     // identity
  -> T;
template<class T> auto f(T)     // #1
  -> decltype(i(h<T>()));       // forces completion of A<T> and implicitly uses
                                // A<T>::~A() for the temporary introduced by the
                                // use of h(). (A temporary is not introduced
                                // as a result of the use of i().)
template<class T> auto f(T)     // #2
  -> void;
auto g() -> void {
  f(42);                        // OK: calls #2. (#1 is not a viable candidate: type
                                // deduction fails ([temp.deduct]) because A<int>::~A()
                                // is implicitly used in its decltype-specifier)
}
template<class T> auto q(T)
  -> decltype((h<T>()));        // does not force completion of A<T>; A<T>::~A() is
                                // not implicitly used within the context of this decltype-specifier
void r() {
  q(42);                        // Error: deduction against q succeeds, so overload resolution
                                // selects the specialization “q(T) -> decltype((h<T>())) [with T=int]”.
                                // The return type is A<int>, so a temporary is introduced and its
                                // destructor is used, so the program is ill-formed.
}

 — end example ] — end note ]

An attribute-specifier-seq shall not appear in an elaborated-type-specifier unless the latter is the sole constituent of a declaration. If an elaborated-type-specifier is the sole constituent of a declaration, the declaration is ill-formed unless it is an explicit specialization ([temp.expl.spec]), an explicit instantiation ([temp.explicit]) or it has one of the following forms:

class-key attribute-specifier-seqopt identifier ;
friend class-key ::opt identifier ;
friend class-key ::opt simple-template-id ;
friend class-key nested-name-specifier identifier ;
friend class-key nested-name-specifier templateopt simple-template-id ;

In the first case, the attribute-specifier-seq, if any, appertains to the class being declared; the attributes in the attribute-specifier-seq are thereafter considered attributes of the class whenever it is named.

[basic.lookup.elab] describes how name lookup proceeds for the identifier in an elaborated-type-specifier. If the identifier resolves to a class-name or enum-name, the elaborated-type-specifier introduces it into the declaration the same way a simple-type-specifier introduces its type-name. If the identifier resolves to a typedef-name or the simple-template-id resolves to an alias template specialization, the elaborated-type-specifier is ill-formed. [ Note: This implies that, within a class template with a template type-parameter T, the declaration

friend class T;

is ill-formed. However, the similar declaration friend T; is allowed ([class.friend]).  — end note ]

The class-key or enum keyword present in the elaborated-type-specifier shall agree in kind with the declaration to which the name in the elaborated-type-specifier refers. This rule also applies to the form of elaborated-type-specifier that declares a class-name or friend class since it can be construed as referring to the definition of the class. Thus, in any elaborated-type-specifier, the enum keyword shall be used to refer to an enumeration ([dcl.enum]), the union class-key shall be used to refer to a union (Clause [class]), and either the class or struct class-key shall be used to refer to a class (Clause [class]) declared using the class or struct class-key. [ Example:

enum class E { a, b };
enum E x = E::a;                // OK

 — end example ]

The auto type-specifier signifies that the type of a variable being declared shall be deduced from its initializer or that a function declarator shall include a trailing-return-type.

The auto type-specifier may appear with a function declarator with a trailing-return-type ([dcl.fct]) in any context where such a declarator is valid.

Otherwise, the type of the variable is deduced from its initializer. The name of the variable being declared shall not appear in the initializer expression. This use of auto is allowed when declaring variables in a block ([stmt.block]), in namespace scope ([basic.scope.namespace]), and in a for-init-statement ([stmt.for]). auto shall appear as one of the decl-specifiers in the decl-specifier-seq and the decl-specifier-seq shall be followed by one or more init-declarators, each of which shall have a non-empty initializer.

[ Example:

auto x = 5;                 // OK: x has type int
const auto *v = &x, u = 6;  // OK: v has type const int*, u has type const int
static auto y = 0.0;        // OK: y has type double
auto int r;                 // error: auto is not a storage-class-specifier

 — end example ]

The auto type-specifier can also be used in declaring a variable in the condition of a selection statement ([stmt.select]) or an iteration statement ([stmt.iter]), in the type-specifier-seq in the new-type-id or type-id of a new-expression ([expr.new]), in a for-range-declaration, and in declaring a static data member with a brace-or-equal-initializer that appears within the member-specification of a class definition ([class.static.data]).

A program that uses auto in a context not explicitly allowed in this section is ill-formed.

Once the type of a declarator-id has been determined according to [dcl.meaning], the type of the declared variable using the declarator-id is determined from the type of its initializer using the rules for template argument deduction. Let T be the type that has been determined for a variable identifier d. Obtain P from T by replacing the occurrences of auto with either a new invented type template parameter U or, if the initializer is a braced-init-list ([dcl.init.list]), with std::initializer_list<U>. The type deduced for the variable d is then the deduced A determined using the rules of template argument deduction from a function call ([temp.deduct.call]), where P is a function template parameter type and the initializer for d is the corresponding argument. If the deduction fails, the declaration is ill-formed. [ Example:

auto x1 = { 1, 2 };         // decltype(x1) is std::initializer_list<int>
auto x2 = { 1, 2.0 };       // error: cannot deduce element type

 — end example ]

If the list of declarators contains more than one declarator, the type of each declared variable is determined as described above. If the type deduced for the template parameter U is not the same in each deduction, the program is ill-formed.

[ Example:

const auto &i = expr;

The type of i is the deduced type of the parameter u in the call f(expr) of the following invented function template:

template <class U> void f(const U& u);

 — end example ]