11 Classes [class]

11.9 Initialization [class.init]

11.9.1 General [class.init.general]

1
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When no initializer is specified for an object of (possibly cv-qualified) class type (or array thereof), or the initializer has the form (), the object is initialized as specified in [dcl.init].
2
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An object of class type (or array thereof) can be explicitly initialized; see [class.expl.init] and [class.base.init].
3
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When an array of class objects is initialized (either explicitly or implicitly) and the elements are initialized by constructor, the constructor shall be called for each element of the array, following the subscript order; see [dcl.array].
[Note 1: 
Destructors for the array elements are called in reverse order of their construction.
— end note]

11.9.2 Explicit initialization [class.expl.init]

1
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An object of class type can be initialized with a parenthesized expression-list, where the expression-list is construed as an argument list for a constructor that is called to initialize the object.
Alternatively, a single assignment-expression can be specified as an initializer using the = form of initialization.
Either direct-initialization semantics or copy-initialization semantics apply; see [dcl.init].
[Example 1: struct complex { complex(); complex(double); complex(double,double); }; complex sqrt(complex,complex); complex a(1); // initialized by calling complex(double) with argument 1 complex b = a; // initialized as a copy of a complex c = complex(1,2); // initialized by calling complex(double,double) with arguments 1 and 2 complex d = sqrt(b,c); // initialized by calling sqrt(complex,complex) with d as its result object complex e; // initialized by calling complex() complex f = 3; // initialized by calling complex(double) with argument 3 complex g = { 1, 2 }; // initialized by calling complex(double, double) with arguments 1 and 2 — end example]
[Note 1: 
Overloading of the assignment operator ([over.ass]) has no effect on initialization.
— end note]
2
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An object of class type can also be initialized by a braced-init-list.
List-initialization semantics apply; see [dcl.init] and [dcl.init.list].
[Example 2: complex v[6] = { 1, complex(1,2), complex(), 2 };
Here, complex​::​complex(double) is called for the initialization of v[0] and v[3], complex​::​complex(​double, double) is called for the initialization of v[1], complex​::​complex() is called for the initialization of v[2], v[4], and v[5].
For another example,
struct X { int i; float f; complex c; } x = { 99, 88.8, 77.7 };
Here, x.i is initialized with 99, x.f is initialized with 88.8, and complex​::​complex(double) is called for the initialization of x.c.
— end example]
[Note 2: 
Braces can be elided in the initializer-list for any aggregate, even if the aggregate has members of a class type with user-defined type conversions; see [dcl.init.aggr].
— end note]
3
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[Note 3: 
If T is a class type with no default constructor, any declaration of an object of type T (or array thereof) is ill-formed if no initializer is explicitly specified (see [class.init] and [dcl.init]).
— end note]
4
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[Note 4: 
The order in which objects with static or thread storage duration are initialized is described in [basic.start.dynamic] and [stmt.dcl].
— end note]

11.9.3 Initializing bases and members [class.base.init]

1
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In the definition of a constructor for a class, initializers for direct and virtual base class subobjects and non-static data members can be specified by a ctor-initializer, which has the form
2
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Lookup for an unqualified name in a mem-initializer-id ignores the constructor's function parameter scope.
[Note 1: 
If the constructor's class contains a member with the same name as a direct or virtual base class of the class, a mem-initializer-id naming the member or base class and composed of a single identifier refers to the class member.
A mem-initializer-id for the hidden base class can be specified using a qualified name.
— end note]
Unless the mem-initializer-id names the constructor's class, a non-static data member of the constructor's class, or a direct or virtual base of that class, the mem-initializer is ill-formed.
3
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A mem-initializer-list can initialize a base class using any class-or-decltype that denotes that base class type.
[Example 1: struct A { A(); }; typedef A global_A; struct B { }; struct C: public A, public B { C(); }; C::C(): global_A() { } // mem-initializer for base A — end example]
4
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If a mem-initializer-id is ambiguous because it designates both a direct non-virtual base class and an indirect virtual base class, the mem-initializer is ill-formed.
[Example 2: struct A { A(); }; struct B: public virtual A { }; struct C: public A, public B { C(); }; C::C(): A() { } // error: which A? — end example]
5
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A ctor-initializer may initialize a variant member of the constructor's class.
If a ctor-initializer specifies more than one mem-initializer for the same member or for the same base class, the ctor-initializer is ill-formed.
6
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A mem-initializer-list can delegate to another constructor of the constructor's class using any class-or-decltype that denotes the constructor's class itself.
If a mem-initializer-id designates the constructor's class, it shall be the only mem-initializer; the constructor is a delegating constructor, and the constructor selected by the mem-initializer is the target constructor.
The target constructor is selected by overload resolution.
Once the target constructor returns, the body of the delegating constructor is executed.
If a constructor delegates to itself directly or indirectly, the program is ill-formed, no diagnostic required.
[Example 3: struct C { C( int ) { } // #1: non-delegating constructor C(): C(42) { } // #2: delegates to #1 C( char c ) : C(42.0) { } // #3: ill-formed due to recursion with #4 C( double d ) : C('a') { } // #4: ill-formed due to recursion with #3 }; — end example]
7
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The expression-list or braced-init-list in a mem-initializer is used to initialize the designated subobject (or, in the case of a delegating constructor, the complete class object) according to the initialization rules of [dcl.init] for direct-initialization.
[Example 4: struct B1 { B1(int); /* ... */ }; struct B2 { B2(int); /* ... */ }; struct D : B1, B2 { D(int); B1 b; const int c; }; D::D(int a) : B2(a+1), B1(a+2), c(a+3), b(a+4) { /* ... */ } D d(10); — end example]
[Note 2: 
The initialization performed by each mem-initializer constitutes a full-expression ([intro.execution]).
Any expression in a mem-initializer is evaluated as part of the full-expression that performs the initialization.
— end note]
A mem-initializer where the mem-initializer-id denotes a virtual base class is ignored during execution of a constructor of any class that is not the most derived class.
8
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A temporary expression bound to a reference member in a mem-initializer is ill-formed.
[Example 5: struct A { A() : v(42) { } // error const int& v; }; — end example]
9
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In a non-delegating constructor other than an implicitly-defined copy/move constructor ([class.copy.ctor]), if a given potentially constructed subobject is not designated by a mem-initializer-id (including the case where there is no mem-initializer-list because the constructor has no ctor-initializer), then
  • (9.1)
    if the entity is a non-static data member that has a default member initializer ([class.mem]) and either the entity is initialized from its default member initializer as specified in [dcl.init];
  • (9.2)
    otherwise, if the entity is an anonymous union or a variant member ([class.union.anon]), no initialization is performed;
  • (9.3)
    otherwise, the entity is default-initialized ([dcl.init]).
[Note 3: 
An abstract class ([class.abstract]) is never a most derived class, thus its constructors never initialize virtual base classes, therefore the corresponding mem-initializers can be omitted.
— end note]
An attempt to initialize more than one non-static data member of a union renders the program ill-formed.
[Note 4: 
After the call to a constructor for class X for an object with automatic or dynamic storage duration has completed, if the constructor was not invoked as part of value-initialization and a member of X is neither initialized nor given a value during execution of the compound-statement of the body of the constructor, the member has an indeterminate value.
— end note]
[Example 6: struct A { A(); }; struct B { B(int); }; struct C { C() { } // initializes members as follows: A a; // OK, calls A​::​A() const B b; // error: B has no default constructor int i; // OK, i has indeterminate value int j = 5; // OK, j has the value 5 }; — end example]
10
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If a given non-static data member has both a default member initializer and a mem-initializer, the initialization specified by the mem-initializer is performed, and the non-static data member's default member initializer is ignored.
[Example 7: 
Given struct A { int i = /* some integer expression with side effects */ ; A(int arg) : i(arg) { } // ... }; the A(int) constructor will simply initialize i to the value of arg, and the side effects in i's default member initializer will not take place.
— end example]
11
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A temporary expression bound to a reference member from a default member initializer is ill-formed.
[Example 8: struct A { A() = default; // OK A(int v) : v(v) { } // OK const int& v = 42; // OK }; A a1; // error: ill-formed binding of temporary to reference A a2(1); // OK, unfortunately — end example]
12
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In a non-delegating constructor, the destructor for each potentially constructed subobject of class type is potentially invoked ([class.dtor]).
[Note 5: 
This provision ensures that destructors can be called for fully-constructed subobjects in case an exception is thrown ([except.ctor]).
— end note]
13
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In a non-delegating constructor, initialization proceeds in the following order:
  • (13.1)
    First, and only for the constructor of the most derived class ([intro.object]), virtual base classes are initialized in the order they appear on a depth-first left-to-right traversal of the directed acyclic graph of base classes, where “left-to-right” is the order of appearance of the base classes in the derived class base-specifier-list.
  • (13.2)
    Then, direct base classes are initialized in declaration order as they appear in the base-specifier-list (regardless of the order of the mem-initializers).
  • (13.3)
    Then, non-static data members are initialized in the order they were declared in the class definition (again regardless of the order of the mem-initializers).
  • (13.4)
    Finally, the compound-statement of the constructor body is executed.
[Note 6: 
The declaration order is mandated to ensure that base and member subobjects are destroyed in the reverse order of initialization.
— end note]
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[Example 9: struct V { V(); V(int); }; struct A : virtual V { A(); A(int); }; struct B : virtual V { B(); B(int); }; struct C : A, B, virtual V { C(); C(int); }; A::A(int i) : V(i) { /* ... */ } B::B(int i) { /* ... */ } C::C(int i) { /* ... */ } V v(1); // use V(int) A a(2); // use V(int) B b(3); // use V() C c(4); // use V() — end example]
15
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[Note 7: 
The expression-list or braced-init-list of a mem-initializer is in the function parameter scope of the constructor and can use this to refer to the object being initialized.
— end note]
[Example 10: class X { int a; int b; int i; int j; public: const int& r; X(int i): r(a), b(i), i(i), j(this->i) { } };
initializes X​::​r to refer to X​::​a, initializes X​::​b with the value of the constructor parameter i, initializes X​::​i with the value of the constructor parameter i, and initializes X​::​j with the value of X​::​i; this takes place each time an object of class X is created.
— end example]
16
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Member functions (including virtual member functions, [class.virtual]) can be called for an object under construction.
Similarly, an object under construction can be the operand of the typeid operator ([expr.typeid]) or of a dynamic_cast ([expr.dynamic.cast]).
However, if these operations are performed in a ctor-initializer (or in a function called directly or indirectly from a ctor-initializer) before all the mem-initializers for base classes have completed, the program has undefined behavior.
[Example 11: class A { public: A(int); }; class B : public A { int j; public: int f(); B() : A(f()), // undefined behavior: calls member function but base A not yet initialized j(f()) { } // well-defined: bases are all initialized }; class C { public: C(int); }; class D : public B, C { int i; public: D() : C(f()), // undefined behavior: calls member function but base C not yet initialized i(f()) { } // well-defined: bases are all initialized }; — end example]
17
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[Note 8: 
[class.cdtor] describes the results of virtual function calls, typeid and dynamic_casts during construction for the well-defined cases; that is, describes the polymorphic behavior of an object under construction.
— end note]
18
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A mem-initializer followed by an ellipsis is a pack expansion ([temp.variadic]) that initializes the base classes specified by a pack expansion in the base-specifier-list for the class.
[Example 12: template<class... Mixins> class X : public Mixins... { public: X(const Mixins&... mixins) : Mixins(mixins)... { } }; — end example]

11.9.4 Initialization by inherited constructor [class.inhctor.init]

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When a constructor for type B is invoked to initialize an object of a different type D (that is, when the constructor was inherited ([namespace.udecl])), initialization proceeds as if a defaulted default constructor were used to initialize the D object and each base class subobject from which the constructor was inherited, except that the B subobject is initialized by the invocation of the inherited constructor.
The complete initialization is considered to be a single function call; in particular, the initialization of the inherited constructor's parameters is sequenced before the initialization of any part of the D object.
[Example 1: struct B1 { B1(int, ...) { } }; struct B2 { B2(double) { } }; int get(); struct D1 : B1 { using B1::B1; // inherits B1(int, ...) int x; int y = get(); }; void test() { D1 d(2, 3, 4); // OK, B1 is initialized by calling B1(2, 3, 4), // then d.x is default-initialized (no initialization is performed), // then d.y is initialized by calling get() D1 e; // error: D1 has no default constructor } struct D2 : B2 { using B2::B2; B1 b; }; D2 f(1.0); // error: B1 has no default constructor struct W { W(int); }; struct X : virtual W { using W::W; X() = delete; }; struct Y : X { using X::X; }; struct Z : Y, virtual W { using Y::Y; }; Z z(0); // OK, initialization of Y does not invoke default constructor of X template<class T> struct Log : T { using T::T; // inherits all constructors from class T ~Log() { std::clog << "Destroying wrapper" << std::endl; } };
Class template Log wraps any class and forwards all of its constructors, while writing a message to the standard log whenever an object of class Log is destroyed.
— end example]
2
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If the constructor was inherited from multiple base class subobjects of type B, the program is ill-formed.
[Example 2: struct A { A(int); }; struct B : A { using A::A; }; struct C1 : B { using B::B; }; struct C2 : B { using B::B; }; struct D1 : C1, C2 { using C1::C1; using C2::C2; }; struct V1 : virtual B { using B::B; }; struct V2 : virtual B { using B::B; }; struct D2 : V1, V2 { using V1::V1; using V2::V2; }; D1 d1(0); // error: ambiguous D2 d2(0); // OK, initializes virtual B base class, which initializes the A base class // then initializes the V1 and V2 base classes as if by a defaulted default constructor struct M { M(); M(int); }; struct N : M { using M::M; }; struct O : M {}; struct P : N, O { using N::N; using O::O; }; P p(0); // OK, use M(0) to initialize N's base class, // use M() to initialize O's base class — end example]
3
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When an object is initialized by an inherited constructor, initialization of the object is complete when the initialization of all subobjects is complete.

11.9.5 Construction and destruction [class.cdtor]

1
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For an object with a non-trivial constructor, referring to any non-static member or base class of the object before the constructor begins execution results in undefined behavior.
For an object with a non-trivial destructor, referring to any non-static member or base class of the object after the destructor finishes execution results in undefined behavior.
[Example 1: struct X { int i; }; struct Y : X { Y(); }; // non-trivial struct A { int a; }; struct B : public A { int j; Y y; }; // non-trivial extern B bobj; B* pb = &bobj; // OK int* p1 = &bobj.a; // undefined behavior: refers to base class member int* p2 = &bobj.y.i; // undefined behavior: refers to member's member A* pa = &bobj; // undefined behavior: upcast to a base class type B bobj; // definition of bobj extern X xobj; int* p3 = &xobj.i; // OK, X is a trivial class X xobj;
For another example, struct W { int j; }; struct X : public virtual W { }; struct Y { int* p; X x; Y() : p(&x.j) { // undefined, x is not yet constructed } };
— end example]
2
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During the construction of an object, if the value of the object or any of its subobjects is accessed through a glvalue that is not obtained, directly or indirectly, from the constructor's this pointer, the value of the object or subobject thus obtained is unspecified.
[Example 2: struct C; void no_opt(C*); struct C { int c; C() : c(0) { no_opt(this); } }; const C cobj; void no_opt(C* cptr) { int i = cobj.c * 100; // value of cobj.c is unspecified cptr->c = 1; cout << cobj.c * 100 // value of cobj.c is unspecified << '\n'; } extern struct D d; struct D { D(int a) : a(a), b(d.a) {} int a, b; }; D d = D(1); // value of d.b is unspecified — end example]
3
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To explicitly or implicitly convert a pointer (a glvalue) referring to an object of class X to a pointer (reference) to a direct or indirect base class B of X, the construction of X and the construction of all of its direct or indirect bases that directly or indirectly derive from B shall have started and the destruction of these classes shall not have completed, otherwise the conversion results in undefined behavior.
To form a pointer to (or access the value of) a direct non-static member of an object obj, the construction of obj shall have started and its destruction shall not have completed, otherwise the computation of the pointer value (or accessing the member value) results in undefined behavior.
[Example 3: struct A { }; struct B : virtual A { }; struct C : B { }; struct D : virtual A { D(A*); }; struct X { X(A*); }; struct E : C, D, X { E() : D(this), // undefined behavior: upcast from E* to A* might use path E* → D* → A* // but D is not constructed // “D((C*)this)'' would be defined: E* → C* is defined because E() has started, // and C* → A* is defined because C is fully constructed X(this) {} // defined: upon construction of X, C/B/D/A sublattice is fully constructed }; — end example]
4
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Member functions, including virtual functions ([class.virtual]), can be called during construction or destruction ([class.base.init]).
When a virtual function is called directly or indirectly from a constructor or from a destructor, including during the construction or destruction of the class's non-static data members, and the object to which the call applies is the object (call it x) under construction or destruction, the function called is the final overrider in the constructor's or destructor's class and not one overriding it in a more-derived class.
If the virtual function call uses an explicit class member access ([expr.ref]) and the object expression refers to the complete object of x or one of that object's base class subobjects but not x or one of its base class subobjects, the behavior is undefined.
[Example 4: struct V { virtual void f(); virtual void g(); }; struct A : virtual V { virtual void f(); }; struct B : virtual V { virtual void g(); B(V*, A*); }; struct D : A, B { virtual void f(); virtual void g(); D() : B((A*)this, this) { } }; B::B(V* v, A* a) { f(); // calls V​::​f, not A​::​f g(); // calls B​::​g, not D​::​g v->g(); // v is base of B, the call is well-defined, calls B​::​g a->f(); // undefined behavior: a's type not a base of B } — end example]
5
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The typeid operator ([expr.typeid]) can be used during construction or destruction ([class.base.init]).
When typeid is used in a constructor (including the mem-initializer or default member initializer ([class.mem]) for a non-static data member) or in a destructor, or used in a function called (directly or indirectly) from a constructor or destructor, if the operand of typeid refers to the object under construction or destruction, typeid yields the std​::​type_info object representing the constructor or destructor's class.
If the operand of typeid refers to the object under construction or destruction and the static type of the operand is neither the constructor or destructor's class nor one of its bases, the behavior is undefined.
6
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dynamic_casts ([expr.dynamic.cast]) can be used during construction or destruction ([class.base.init]).
When a dynamic_cast is used in a constructor (including the mem-initializer or default member initializer for a non-static data member) or in a destructor, or used in a function called (directly or indirectly) from a constructor or destructor, if the operand of the dynamic_cast refers to the object under construction or destruction, this object is considered to be a most derived object that has the type of the constructor or destructor's class.
If the operand of the dynamic_cast refers to the object under construction or destruction and the static type of the operand is not a pointer to or object of the constructor or destructor's own class or one of its bases, the dynamic_cast results in undefined behavior.
[Example 5: struct V { virtual void f(); }; struct A : virtual V { }; struct B : virtual V { B(V*, A*); }; struct D : A, B { D() : B((A*)this, this) { } }; B::B(V* v, A* a) { typeid(*this); // type_info for B typeid(*v); // well-defined: *v has type V, a base of B yields type_info for B typeid(*a); // undefined behavior: type A not a base of B dynamic_cast<B*>(v); // well-defined: v of type V*, V base of B results in B* dynamic_cast<B*>(a); // undefined behavior: a has type A*, A not a base of B } — end example]

11.9.6 Copy/move elision [class.copy.elision]

1
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When certain criteria are met, an implementation is allowed to omit the copy/move construction of a class object, even if the constructor selected for the copy/move operation and/or the destructor for the object have side effects.
In such cases, the implementation treats the source and target of the omitted copy/move operation as simply two different ways of referring to the same object.
If the first parameter of the selected constructor is an rvalue reference to the object's type, the destruction of that object occurs when the target would have been destroyed; otherwise, the destruction occurs at the later of the times when the two objects would have been destroyed without the optimization.105
This elision of copy/move operations, called copy elision, is permitted in the following circumstances (which may be combined to eliminate multiple copies):
  • (1.1)
    in a return statement in a function with a class return type, when the expression is the name of a non-volatile object with automatic storage duration (other than a function parameter or a variable introduced by the exception-declaration of a handler ([except.handle])) with the same type (ignoring cv-qualification) as the function return type, the copy/move operation can be omitted by constructing the object directly into the function call's return object
  • (1.2)
    in a throw-expression ([expr.throw]), when the operand is the name of a non-volatile object with automatic storage duration (other than a function or catch-clause parameter) that belongs to a scope that does not contain the innermost enclosing compound-statement associated with a try-block (if there is one), the copy/move operation can be omitted by constructing the object directly into the exception object
  • (1.3)
    in a coroutine, a copy of a coroutine parameter can be omitted and references to that copy replaced with references to the corresponding parameter if the meaning of the program will be unchanged except for the execution of a constructor and destructor for the parameter copy object
  • (1.4)
    when the exception-declaration of an exception handler ([except.pre]) declares an object of the same type (except for cv-qualification) as the exception object ([except.throw]), the copy operation can be omitted by treating the exception-declaration as an alias for the exception object if the meaning of the program will be unchanged except for the execution of constructors and destructors for the object declared by the exception-declaration.
    [Note 1: 
    There cannot be a move from the exception object because it is always an lvalue.
    — end note]
Copy elision is not permitted where an expression is evaluated in a context requiring a constant expression ([expr.const]) and in constant initialization ([basic.start.static]).
[Note 2: 
It is possible that copy elision is performed if the same expression is evaluated in another context.
— end note]
2
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[Example 1: class Thing { public: Thing(); ~Thing(); Thing(const Thing&); }; Thing f() { Thing t; return t; } Thing t2 = f(); struct A { void *p; constexpr A(): p(this) {} }; constexpr A g() { A loc; return loc; } constexpr A a; // well-formed, a.p points to a constexpr A b = g(); // error: b.p would be dangling ([expr.const]) void h() { A c = g(); // well-formed, c.p can point to c or be dangling }
Here the criteria for elision can eliminate the copying of the object t with automatic storage duration into the result object for the function call f(), which is the non-local object t2.
Effectively, the construction of t can be viewed as directly initializing t2, and that object's destruction will occur at program exit.
Adding a move constructor to Thing has the same effect, but it is the move construction from the object with automatic storage duration to t2 that is elided.
— end example]
3
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[Example 2: class Thing { public: Thing(); ~Thing(); Thing(Thing&&); private: Thing(const Thing&); }; Thing f(bool b) { Thing t; if (b) throw t; // OK, Thing(Thing&&) used (or elided) to throw t return t; // OK, Thing(Thing&&) used (or elided) to return t } Thing t2 = f(false); // OK, no extra copy/move performed, t2 constructed by call to f struct Weird { Weird(); Weird(Weird&); }; Weird g(bool b) { static Weird w1; Weird w2; if (b) return w1; // OK, uses Weird(Weird&) else return w2; // error: w2 in this context is an xvalue } int& h(bool b, int i) { static int s; if (b) return s; // OK else return i; // error: i is an xvalue } decltype(auto) h2(Thing t) { return t; // OK, t is an xvalue and h2's return type is Thing } decltype(auto) h3(Thing t) { return (t); // OK, (t) is an xvalue and h3's return type is Thing&& } — end example]
4
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[Example 3: template<class T> void g(const T&); template<class T> void f() { T x; try { T y; try { g(x); } catch (...) { if (/*...*/) throw x; // does not move throw y; // moves } g(y); } catch(...) { g(x); g(y); // error: y is not in scope } } — end example]
105)105)
Because only one object is destroyed instead of two, and one copy/move constructor is not executed, there is still one object destroyed for each one constructed.