14 Exception handling [except]

14.1 Preamble [except.pre]

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Exception handling provides a way of transferring control and information from a point in the execution of a thread to an exception handler associated with a point previously passed by the execution.
A handler will be invoked only by throwing an exception in code executed in the handler's try block or in functions called from the handler's try block.
The optional attribute-specifier-seq in an exception-declaration appertains to the parameter of the catch clause ([except.handle]).
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[Note 1:
Within this Clause “try block” is taken to mean both try-block and function-try-block.
— end note]
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A goto or switch statement shall not be used to transfer control into a try block or into a handler.
[Example 1: void f() { goto l1; // error goto l2; // error try { goto l1; // OK goto l2; // error l1: ; } catch (...) { l2: ; goto l1; // error goto l2; // OK } } — end example]
A goto, break, return, or continue statement can be used to transfer control out of a try block or handler.
When this happens, each variable declared in the try block will be destroyed in the context that directly contains its declaration.
[Example 2: lab: try { T1 t1; try { T2 t2; if (condition) goto lab; } catch(...) { /* handler 2 */ } } catch(...) { /* handler 1 */ }
Here, executing goto lab; will destroy first t2, then t1, assuming the condition does not declare a variable.
Any exception thrown while destroying t2 will result in executing handler 2; any exception thrown while destroying t1 will result in executing handler 1.
— end example]
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A function-try-block associates a handler-seq with the ctor-initializer, if present, and the compound-statement.
An exception thrown during the execution of the compound-statement or, for constructors and destructors, during the initialization or destruction, respectively, of the class's subobjects, transfers control to a handler in a function-try-block in the same way as an exception thrown during the execution of a try-block transfers control to other handlers.
[Example 3: int f(int); class C { int i; double d; public: C(int, double); }; C::C(int ii, double id) try : i(f(ii)), d(id) { // constructor statements } catch (...) { // handles exceptions thrown from the ctor-initializer and from the constructor statements } — end example]
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In this Clause, “before” and “after” refer to the “sequenced before” relation.

14.2 Throwing an exception [except.throw]

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Throwing an exception transfers control to a handler.
[Note 1:
An exception can be thrown from one of the following contexts: throw-expressions ([expr.throw]), allocation functions, dynamic_­cast, typeid, new-expressions ([expr.new]), and standard library functions ([structure.specifications]).
— end note]
An object is passed and the type of that object determines which handlers can catch it.
[Example 1:
throw "Help!"; can be caught by a handler of const char* type: try { // ... } catch(const char* p) { // handle character string exceptions here } and class Overflow { public: Overflow(char,double,double); }; void f(double x) { throw Overflow('+',x,3.45e107); } can be caught by a handler for exceptions of type Overflow: try { f(1.2); } catch(Overflow& oo) { // handle exceptions of type Overflow here }
— end example]
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When an exception is thrown, control is transferred to the nearest handler with a matching type ([except.handle]); “nearest” means the handler for which the compound-statement or ctor-initializer following the try keyword was most recently entered by the thread of control and not yet exited.
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Throwing an exception copy-initializes ([dcl.init], [class.copy.ctor]) a temporary object, called the exception object.
An lvalue denoting the temporary is used to initialize the variable declared in the matching handler ([except.handle]).
If the type of the exception object would be an incomplete type, an abstract class type ([class.abstract]), or a pointer to an incomplete type other than cv void the program is ill-formed.
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The memory for the exception object is allocated in an unspecified way, except as noted in [basic.stc.dynamic.allocation].
If a handler exits by rethrowing, control is passed to another handler for the same exception object.
The points of potential destruction for the exception object are:
  • (4.1)
    when an active handler for the exception exits by any means other than rethrowing, immediately after the destruction of the object (if any) declared in the exception-declaration in the handler;
  • (4.2)
    when an object of type std​::​exception_­ptr that refers to the exception object is destroyed, before the destructor of std​::​exception_­ptr returns.
Among all points of potential destruction for the exception object, there is an unspecified last one where the exception object is destroyed.
All other points happen before that last one.
[Note 2:
No other thread synchronization is implied in exception handling.
— end note]
The implementation may then deallocate the memory for the exception object; any such deallocation is done in an unspecified way.
[Note 3:
A thrown exception does not propagate to other threads unless caught, stored, and rethrown using appropriate library functions; see [propagation] and [futures].
— end note]
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When the thrown object is a class object, the constructor selected for the copy-initialization as well as the constructor selected for a copy-initialization considering the thrown object as an lvalue shall be non-deleted and accessible, even if the copy/move operation is elided ([class.copy.elision]).
The destructor is potentially invoked ([class.dtor]).
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An exception is considered caught when a handler for that exception becomes active.
[Note 4:
An exception can have active handlers and still be considered uncaught if it is rethrown.
— end note]
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If the exception handling mechanism handling an uncaught exception directly invokes a function that exits via an exception, the function std​::​terminate is called.
[Example 2: struct C { C() { } C(const C&) { if (std::uncaught_exceptions()) { throw 0; // throw during copy to handler's exception-declaration object ([except.handle]) } } }; int main() { try { throw C(); // calls std​::​terminate if construction of the handler's // exception-declaration object is not elided ([class.copy.elision]) } catch(C) { } } — end example]
[Note 5:
If a destructor directly invoked by stack unwinding exits via an exception, std​::​terminate is invoked.
— end note]

14.3 Constructors and destructors [except.ctor]

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As control passes from the point where an exception is thrown to a handler, objects with automatic storage duration are destroyed by a process, specified in this subclause, called stack unwinding.
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Each object with automatic storage duration is destroyed if it has been constructed, but not yet destroyed, since the try block was entered.
If an exception is thrown during the destruction of temporaries or local variables for a return statement, the destructor for the returned object (if any) is also invoked.
The objects are destroyed in the reverse order of the completion of their construction.
[Example 1: struct A { }; struct Y { ~Y() noexcept(false) { throw 0; } }; A f() { try { A a; Y y; A b; return {}; // #1 } catch (...) { } return {}; // #2 }
At #1, the returned object of type A is constructed.
Then, the local variable b is destroyed ([stmt.jump]).
Next, the local variable y is destroyed, causing stack unwinding, resulting in the destruction of the returned object, followed by the destruction of the local variable a.
Finally, the returned object is constructed again at #2.
— end example]
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If the initialization or destruction of an object other than by delegating constructor is terminated by an exception, the destructor is invoked for each of the object's direct subobjects and, for a complete object, virtual base class subobjects, whose initialization has completed ([dcl.init]) and whose destructor has not yet begun execution, except that in the case of destruction, the variant members of a union-like class are not destroyed.
[Note 1:
If such an object has a reference member that extends the lifetime of a temporary object, this ends the lifetime of the reference member, so the lifetime of the temporary object is effectively not extended.
— end note]
The subobjects are destroyed in the reverse order of the completion of their construction.
Such destruction is sequenced before entering a handler of the function-try-block of the constructor or destructor, if any.
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If the compound-statement of the function-body of a delegating constructor for an object exits via an exception, the object's destructor is invoked.
Such destruction is sequenced before entering a handler of the function-try-block of a delegating constructor for that object, if any.
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[Note 2:
If the object was allocated by a new-expression ([expr.new]), the matching deallocation function, if any, is called to free the storage occupied by the object.
— end note]

14.4 Handling an exception [except.handle]

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The exception-declaration in a handler describes the type(s) of exceptions that can cause that handler to be entered.
The exception-declaration shall not denote an incomplete type, an abstract class type, or an rvalue reference type.
The exception-declaration shall not denote a pointer or reference to an incomplete type, other than “pointer to cv void”.
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A handler of type “array of T” or function type T is adjusted to be of type “pointer to T”.
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A handler is a match for an exception object of type E if
[Note 1:
A throw-expression whose operand is an integer literal with value zero does not match a handler of pointer or pointer-to-member type.
A handler of reference to array or function type is never a match for any exception object ([expr.throw]).
— end note]
[Example 1: class Matherr { /* ... */ virtual void vf(); }; class Overflow: public Matherr { /* ... */ }; class Underflow: public Matherr { /* ... */ }; class Zerodivide: public Matherr { /* ... */ }; void f() { try { g(); } catch (Overflow oo) { // ... } catch (Matherr mm) { // ... } }
Here, the Overflow handler will catch exceptions of type Overflow and the Matherr handler will catch exceptions of type Matherr and of all types publicly derived from Matherr including exceptions of type Underflow and Zerodivide.
— end example]
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The handlers for a try block are tried in order of appearance.
[Note 2:
This makes it possible to write handlers that can never be executed, for example by placing a handler for a final derived class after a handler for a corresponding unambiguous public base class.
— end note]
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A ... in a handler's exception-declaration functions similarly to ... in a function parameter declaration; it specifies a match for any exception.
If present, a ... handler shall be the last handler for its try block.
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If no match is found among the handlers for a try block, the search for a matching handler continues in a dynamically surrounding try block of the same thread.
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A handler is considered active when initialization is complete for the parameter (if any) of the catch clause.
[Note 3:
The stack will have been unwound at that point.
— end note]
Also, an implicit handler is considered active when the function std​::​terminate is entered due to a throw.
A handler is no longer considered active when the catch clause exits.
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The exception with the most recently activated handler that is still active is called the currently handled exception.
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If no matching handler is found, the function std​::​terminate is called; whether or not the stack is unwound before this call to std​::​terminate is implementation-defined ([except.terminate]).
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Referring to any non-static member or base class of an object in the handler for a function-try-block of a constructor or destructor for that object results in undefined behavior.
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The scope and lifetime of the parameters of a function or constructor extend into the handlers of a function-try-block.
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Exceptions thrown in destructors of objects with static storage duration or in constructors of namespace-scope objects with static storage duration are not caught by a function-try-block on the main function.
Exceptions thrown in destructors of objects with thread storage duration or in constructors of namespace-scope objects with thread storage duration are not caught by a function-try-block on the initial function of the thread.
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If a return statement ([stmt.return]) appears in a handler of the function-try-block of a constructor, the program is ill-formed.
14
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The currently handled exception is rethrown if control reaches the end of a handler of the function-try-block of a constructor or destructor.
Otherwise, flowing off the end of the compound-statement of a handler of a function-try-block is equivalent to flowing off the end of the compound-statement of that function (see [stmt.return]).
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The variable declared by the exception-declaration, of type cv T or cv T&, is initialized from the exception object, of type E, as follows:
The lifetime of the variable ends when the handler exits, after the destruction of any objects with automatic storage duration initialized within the handler.
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When the handler declares an object, any changes to that object will not affect the exception object.
When the handler declares a reference to an object, any changes to the referenced object are changes to the exception object and will have effect should that object be rethrown.

14.5 Exception specifications [except.spec]

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The predicate indicating whether a function cannot exit via an exception is called the exception specification of the function.
If the predicate is false, the function has a potentially-throwing exception specification, otherwise it has a non-throwing exception specification.
The exception specification is either defined implicitly, or defined explicitly by using a noexcept-specifier as a suffix of a function declarator.
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In a noexcept-specifier, the constant-expression, if supplied, shall be a contextually converted constant expression of type bool; that constant expression is the exception specification of the function type in which the noexcept-specifier appears.
A ( token that follows noexcept is part of the noexcept-specifier and does not commence an initializer.
The noexcept-specifier noexcept without a constant-expression is equivalent to the noexcept-specifier noexcept(true).
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If a declaration of a function does not have a noexcept-specifier, the declaration has a potentially throwing exception specification unless it is a destructor or a deallocation function or is defaulted on its first declaration, in which cases the exception specification is as specified below and no other declaration for that function shall have a noexcept-specifier.
In an explicit instantiation a noexcept-specifier may be specified, but is not required.
If a noexcept-specifier is specified in an explicit instantiation directive, the exception specification shall be the same as the exception specification of all other declarations of that function.
A diagnostic is required only if the exception specifications are not the same within a single translation unit.
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If a virtual function has a non-throwing exception specification, all declarations, including the definition, of any function that overrides that virtual function in any derived class shall have a non-throwing exception specification, unless the overriding function is defined as deleted.
[Example 1: struct B { virtual void f() noexcept; virtual void g(); virtual void h() noexcept = delete; }; struct D: B { void f(); // error void g() noexcept; // OK void h() = delete; // OK };
The declaration of D​::​f is ill-formed because it has a potentially-throwing exception specification, whereas B​::​f has a non-throwing exception specification.
— end example]
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Whenever an exception is thrown and the search for a handler ([except.handle]) encounters the outermost block of a function with a non-throwing exception specification, the function std​::​terminate is called ([except.terminate]).
[Note 1:
An implementation is not permitted to reject an expression merely because, when executed, it throws or might throw an exception from a function with a non-throwing exception specification.
— end note]
[Example 2: extern void f(); // potentially-throwing void g() noexcept { f(); // valid, even if f throws throw 42; // valid, effectively a call to std​::​terminate }
The call to f is well-formed even though, when called, f might throw an exception.
— end example]
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An expression E is potentially-throwing if
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An implicitly-declared constructor for a class X, or a constructor without a noexcept-specifier that is defaulted on its first declaration, has a potentially-throwing exception specification if and only if any of the following constructs is potentially-throwing:
  • (7.1)
    a constructor selected by overload resolution in the implicit definition of the constructor for class X to initialize a potentially constructed subobject, or
  • (7.2)
    a subexpression of such an initialization, such as a default argument expression, or,
  • (7.3)
    for a default constructor, a default member initializer.
[Note 2:
Even though destructors for fully-constructed subobjects are invoked when an exception is thrown during the execution of a constructor ([except.ctor]), their exception specifications do not contribute to the exception specification of the constructor, because an exception thrown from such a destructor would call the function std​::​terminate rather than escape the constructor ([except.throw], [except.terminate]).
— end note]
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The exception specification for an implicitly-declared destructor, or a destructor without a noexcept-specifier, is potentially-throwing if and only if any of the destructors for any of its potentially constructed subobjects is potentially-throwing or the destructor is virtual and the destructor of any virtual base class is potentially-throwing.
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The exception specification for an implicitly-declared assignment operator, or an assignment-operator without a noexcept-specifier that is defaulted on its first declaration, is potentially-throwing if and only if the invocation of any assignment operator in the implicit definition is potentially-throwing.
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A deallocation function with no explicit noexcept-specifier has a non-throwing exception specification.
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The exception specification for a comparison operator function ([over.binary]) without a noexcept-specifier that is defaulted on its first declaration is potentially-throwing if and only if any expression in the implicit definition is potentially-throwing.
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[Example 3: struct A { A(int = (A(5), 0)) noexcept; A(const A&) noexcept; A(A&&) noexcept; ~A(); }; struct B { B() noexcept; B(const B&) = default; // implicit exception specification is noexcept(true) B(B&&, int = (throw 42, 0)) noexcept; ~B() noexcept(false); }; int n = 7; struct D : public A, public B { int * p = new int[n]; // D​::​D() potentially-throwing, as the new operator may throw bad_­alloc or bad_­array_­new_­length // D​::​D(const D&) non-throwing // D​::​D(D&&) potentially-throwing, as the default argument for B's constructor may throw // D​::​~D() potentially-throwing };
Furthermore, if A​::​~A() were virtual, the program would be ill-formed since a function that overrides a virtual function from a base class shall not have a potentially-throwing exception specification if the base class function has a non-throwing exception specification.
— end example]
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An exception specification is considered to be needed when:
  • (13.1)
    in an expression, the function is the unique lookup result or the selected member of a set of overloaded functions ([basic.lookup], [over.match], [over.over]);
  • (13.2)
    the function is odr-used or, if it appears in an unevaluated operand, would be odr-used if the expression were potentially-evaluated;
  • (13.3)
    the exception specification is compared to that of another declaration (e.g., an explicit specialization or an overriding virtual function);
  • (13.4)
    the function is defined; or
  • (13.5)
    the exception specification is needed for a defaulted function that calls the function.
    [Note 3:
    A defaulted declaration does not require the exception specification of a base member function to be evaluated until the implicit exception specification of the derived function is needed, but an explicit noexcept-specifier needs the implicit exception specification to compare against.
    — end note]
The exception specification of a defaulted function is evaluated as described above only when needed; similarly, the noexcept-specifier of a specialization of a function template or member function of a class template is instantiated only when needed.

14.6 Special functions [except.special]

14.6.1 General [except.special.general]

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The function std​::​terminate ([except.terminate]) is used by the exception handling mechanism for coping with errors related to the exception handling mechanism itself.
The function std​::​current_­exception() and the class std​::​nested_­exception can be used by a program to capture the currently handled exception.

14.6.2 The std​::​terminate function [except.terminate]

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In some situations exception handling is abandoned for less subtle error handling techniques.
[Note 1:
These situations are:
— end note]
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In such cases, the function std​::​terminate is called.
In the situation where no matching handler is found, it is implementation-defined whether or not the stack is unwound before std​::​terminate is called.
In the situation where the search for a handler encounters the outermost block of a function with a non-throwing exception specification, it is implementation-defined whether the stack is unwound, unwound partially, or not unwound at all before the function std​::​terminate is called.
In all other situations, the stack shall not be unwound before the function std​::​terminate is called.
An implementation is not permitted to finish stack unwinding prematurely based on a determination that the unwind process will eventually cause a call to the function std​::​terminate.

14.6.3 The std​::​uncaught_­exceptions function [except.uncaught]

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An exception is considered uncaught after completing the initialization of the exception object until completing the activation of a handler for the exception ([except.handle]).
[Note 1:
As a consequence, an exception is considered uncaught during any stack unwinding resulting from it being thrown.
— end note]
If an exception is rethrown ([expr.throw], [propagation]), it is considered uncaught from the point of rethrow until the rethrown exception is caught.
The function std​::​uncaught_­exceptions ([uncaught.exceptions]) returns the number of uncaught exceptions in the current thread.