9 Declarations [dcl.dcl]

9.9 The using declaration [namespace.udecl]

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Each using-declarator in a using-declaration101 introduces a set of declarations into the declarative region in which the using-declaration appears.
The set of declarations introduced by the using-declarator is found by performing qualified name lookup ([basic.lookup.qual], [class.member.lookup]) for the name in the using-declarator, excluding functions that are hidden as described below.
If the using-declarator does not name a constructor, the unqualified-id is declared in the declarative region in which the using-declaration appears as a synonym for each declaration introduced by the using-declarator.
[Note 1:
Only the specified name is so declared; specifying an enumeration name in a using-declaration does not declare its enumerators in the using-declaration's declarative region.
— end note]
If the using-declarator names a constructor, it declares that the class inherits the set of constructor declarations introduced by the using-declarator from the nominated base class.
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Every using-declaration is a declaration and a member-declaration and can therefore be used in a class definition.
[Example 1: struct B { void f(char); void g(char); enum E { e }; union { int x; }; }; struct D : B { using B::f; void f(int) { f('c'); } // calls B​::​f(char) void g(int) { g('c'); } // recursively calls D​::​g(int) }; — end example]
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In a using-declaration used as a member-declaration, each using-declarator shall either name an enumerator or have a nested-name-specifier naming a base class of the class being defined.
[Example 2: enum class button { up, down }; struct S { using button::up; button b = up; // OK }; — end example]
If a using-declarator names a constructor, its nested-name-specifier shall name a direct base class of the class being defined.
[Example 3: template <typename... bases> struct X : bases... { using bases::g...; }; X<B, D> x; // OK: B​::​g and D​::​g introduced — end example]
[Example 4: class C { int g(); }; class D2 : public B { using B::f; // OK: B is a base of D2 using B::e; // OK: e is an enumerator of base B using B::x; // OK: x is a union member of base B using C::g; // error: C isn't a base of D2 }; — end example]
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[Note 2:
Since destructors do not have names, a using-declaration cannot refer to a destructor for a base class.
Since specializations of member templates for conversion functions are not found by name lookup, they are not considered when a using-declaration specifies a conversion function ([temp.mem]).
— end note]
If a constructor or assignment operator brought from a base class into a derived class has the signature of a copy/move constructor or assignment operator for the derived class ([class.copy.ctor], [class.copy.assign]), the using-declaration does not by itself suppress the implicit declaration of the derived class member; the member from the base class is hidden or overridden by the implicitly-declared copy/move constructor or assignment operator of the derived class, as described below.
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A using-declaration shall not name a template-id.
[Example 5: struct A { template <class T> void f(T); template <class T> struct X { }; }; struct B : A { using A::f<double>; // error using A::X<int>; // error }; — end example]
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A using-declaration shall not name a namespace.
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A using-declaration that names a class member other than an enumerator shall be a member-declaration.
[Example 6: struct X { int i; static int s; }; void f() { using X::i; // error: X​::​i is a class member and this is not a member declaration. using X::s; // error: X​::​s is a class member and this is not a member declaration. } — end example]
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Members declared by a using-declaration can be referred to by explicit qualification just like other member names ([namespace.qual]).
[Example 7: void f(); namespace A { void g(); } namespace X { using ::f; // global f using A::g; // A's g } void h() { X::f(); // calls ​::​f X::g(); // calls A​::​g } — end example]
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A using-declaration is a declaration and can therefore be used repeatedly where (and only where) multiple declarations are allowed.
[Example 8: namespace A { int i; } namespace A1 { using A::i, A::i; // OK: double declaration } struct B { int i; }; struct X : B { using B::i, B::i; // error: double member declaration }; — end example]
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[Note 3:
For a using-declaration whose nested-name-specifier names a namespace, members added to the namespace after the using-declaration are not in the set of introduced declarations, so they are not considered when a use of the name is made.
Thus, additional overloads added after the using-declaration are ignored, but default function arguments ([dcl.fct.default]), default template arguments ([temp.param]), and template specializations ([temp.class.spec], [temp.expl.spec]) are considered.
— end note]
[Example 9: namespace A { void f(int); } using A::f; // f is a synonym for A​::​f; that is, for A​::​f(int). namespace A { void f(char); } void foo() { f('a'); // calls f(int), even though f(char) exists. } void bar() { using A::f; // f is a synonym for A​::​f; that is, for A​::​f(int) and A​::​f(char). f('a'); // calls f(char) } — end example]
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[Note 4:
Partial specializations of class templates are found by looking up the primary class template and then considering all partial specializations of that template.
If a using-declaration names a class template, partial specializations introduced after the using-declaration are effectively visible because the primary template is visible ([temp.class.spec]).
— end note]
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Since a using-declaration is a declaration, the restrictions on declarations of the same name in the same declarative region also apply to using-declarations.
[Example 10: namespace A { int x; } namespace B { int i; struct g { }; struct x { }; void f(int); void f(double); void g(char); // OK: hides struct g } void func() { int i; using B::i; // error: i declared twice void f(char); using B::f; // OK: each f is a function f(3.5); // calls B​::​f(double) using B::g; g('a'); // calls B​::​g(char) struct g g1; // g1 has class type B​::​g using B::x; using A::x; // OK: hides struct B​::​x x = 99; // assigns to A​::​x struct x x1; // x1 has class type B​::​x } — end example]
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If a function declaration in namespace scope or block scope has the same name and the same parameter-type-list as a function introduced by a using-declaration, and the declarations do not declare the same function, the program is ill-formed.
If a function template declaration in namespace scope has the same name, parameter-type-list, trailing requires-clause (if any), return type, and template-head, as a function template introduced by a using-declaration, the program is ill-formed.
[Note 5:
Two using-declarations can introduce functions with the same name and the same parameter-type-list.
If, for a call to an unqualified function name, function overload resolution selects the functions introduced by such using-declarations, the function call is ill-formed.
[Example 11: namespace B { void f(int); void f(double); } namespace C { void f(int); void f(double); void f(char); } void h() { using B::f; // B​::​f(int) and B​::​f(double) using C::f; // C​::​f(int), C​::​f(double), and C​::​f(char) f('h'); // calls C​::​f(char) f(1); // error: ambiguous: B​::​f(int) or C​::​f(int)? void f(int); // error: f(int) conflicts with C​::​f(int) and B​::​f(int) } — end example]
— end note]
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When a using-declarator brings declarations from a base class into a derived class, member functions and member function templates in the derived class override and/or hide member functions and member function templates with the same name, parameter-type-list ([dcl.fct]), trailing requires-clause (if any), cv-qualification, and ref-qualifier (if any), in a base class (rather than conflicting).
Such hidden or overridden declarations are excluded from the set of declarations introduced by the using-declarator.
[Example 12: struct B { virtual void f(int); virtual void f(char); void g(int); void h(int); }; struct D : B { using B::f; void f(int); // OK: D​::​f(int) overrides B​::​f(int); using B::g; void g(char); // OK using B::h; void h(int); // OK: D​::​h(int) hides B​::​h(int) }; void k(D* p) { p->f(1); // calls D​::​f(int) p->f('a'); // calls B​::​f(char) p->g(1); // calls B​::​g(int) p->g('a'); // calls D​::​g(char) } struct B1 { B1(int); }; struct B2 { B2(int); }; struct D1 : B1, B2 { using B1::B1; using B2::B2; }; D1 d1(0); // error: ambiguous struct D2 : B1, B2 { using B1::B1; using B2::B2; D2(int); // OK: D2​::​D2(int) hides B1​::​B1(int) and B2​::​B2(int) }; D2 d2(0); // calls D2​::​D2(int) — end example]
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[Note 6:
For the purpose of forming a set of candidates during overload resolution, the functions that are introduced by a using-declaration into a derived class are treated as though they were members of the derived class ([class.member.lookup]).
In particular, the implicit object parameter is treated as if it were a reference to the derived class rather than to the base class ([over.match.funcs]).
This has no effect on the type of the function, and in all other respects the function remains a member of the base class.
— end note]
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Constructors that are introduced by a using-declaration are treated as though they were constructors of the derived class when looking up the constructors of the derived class ([class.qual]) or forming a set of overload candidates ([over.match.ctor], [over.match.copy], [over.match.list]).
[Note 7:
If such a constructor is selected to perform the initialization of an object of class type, all subobjects other than the base class from which the constructor originated are implicitly initialized ([class.inhctor.init]).
A constructor of a derived class is sometimes preferred to a constructor of a base class if they would otherwise be ambiguous ([over.match.best]).
— end note]
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In a using-declarator that does not name a constructor, all members of the set of introduced declarations shall be accessible.
In a using-declarator that names a constructor, no access check is performed.
In particular, if a derived class uses a using-declarator to access a member of a base class, the member name shall be accessible.
If the name is that of an overloaded member function, then all functions named shall be accessible.
The base class members mentioned by a using-declarator shall be visible in the scope of at least one of the direct base classes of the class where the using-declarator is specified.
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[Note 8:
Because a using-declarator designates a base class member (and not a member subobject or a member function of a base class subobject), a using-declarator cannot be used to resolve inherited member ambiguities.
[Example 13: struct A { int x(); }; struct B : A { }; struct C : A { using A::x; int x(int); }; struct D : B, C { using C::x; int x(double); }; int f(D* d) { return d->x(); // error: overload resolution selects A​::​x, but A is an ambiguous base class } — end example]
— end note]
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A synonym created by a using-declaration has the usual accessibility for a member-declaration.
A using-declarator that names a constructor does not create a synonym; instead, the additional constructors are accessible if they would be accessible when used to construct an object of the corresponding base class, and the accessibility of the using-declaration is ignored.
[Example 14: class A { private: void f(char); public: void f(int); protected: void g(); }; class B : public A { using A::f; // error: A​::​f(char) is inaccessible public: using A::g; // B​::​g is a public synonym for A​::​g }; — end example]
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If a using-declarator uses the keyword typename and specifies a dependent name ([temp.dep]), the name introduced by the using-declaration is treated as a typedef-name ([dcl.typedef]).
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A using-declaration with more than one using-declarator is equivalent to a corresponding sequence of using-declarations with one using-declarator each.
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