7 Expressions [expr]

7.2 Properties of expressions [expr.prop]

7.2.1 Value category [basic.lval]

1
#
Expressions are categorized according to the taxonomy in Figure 1.
categories expression expression glvalue glvalue expression->glvalue rvalue rvalue expression->rvalue lvalue lvalue glvalue->lvalue xvalue xvalue glvalue->xvalue rvalue->xvalue prvalue prvalue rvalue->prvalue
Figure 1: Expression category taxonomy  [fig:basic.lval]
  • (1.1)
    A glvalue is an expression whose evaluation determines the identity of an object, bit-field, or function.
  • (1.2)
    A prvalue is an expression whose evaluation initializes an object or a bit-field, or computes the value of an operand of an operator, as specified by the context in which it appears, or an expression that has type cv void.
  • (1.3)
    An xvalue is a glvalue that denotes an object or bit-field whose resources can be reused (usually because it is near the end of its lifetime).
  • (1.4)
    An lvalue is a glvalue that is not an xvalue.
  • (1.5)
    An rvalue is a prvalue or an xvalue.
2
#
Every expression belongs to exactly one of the fundamental classifications in this taxonomy: lvalue, xvalue, or prvalue.
This property of an expression is called its value category.
[ Note
:
The discussion of each built-in operator in [expr.compound] indicates the category of the value it yields and the value categories of the operands it expects.
For example, the built-in assignment operators expect that the left operand is an lvalue and that the right operand is a prvalue and yield an lvalue as the result.
User-defined operators are functions, and the categories of values they expect and yield are determined by their parameter and return types.
— end note
 ]
3
#
[ Note
:
Historically, lvalues and rvalues were so-called because they could appear on the left- and right-hand side of an assignment (although this is no longer generally true); glvalues are “generalized” lvalues, prvalues are “pure” rvalues, and xvalues are “eXpiring” lvalues.
Despite their names, these terms classify expressions, not values.
— end note
 ]
4
#
[ Note
:
An expression is an xvalue if it is:
In general, the effect of this rule is that named rvalue references are treated as lvalues and unnamed rvalue references to objects are treated as xvalues; rvalue references to functions are treated as lvalues whether named or not.
— end note
 ]
[ Example
: 
struct A {
int m;
};
A&& operator+(A, A);
A&& f();

A a;
A&& ar = static_cast<A&&>(a);
The expressions f(), f().m, static_­cast<A&&>(a), and a + a are xvalues.
The expression ar is an lvalue.
— end example
 ]
5
#
The result of a glvalue is the entity denoted by the expression.
The result of a prvalue is the value that the expression stores into its context; a prvalue that has type cv void has no result.
A prvalue whose result is the value V is sometimes said to have or name the value V.
The result object of a prvalue is the object initialized by the prvalue; a non-discarded prvalue that is used to compute the value of an operand of a built-in operator or a prvalue that has type cv void has no result object.
[ Note
:
Except when the prvalue is the operand of a decltype-specifier, a prvalue of class or array type always has a result object.
For a discarded prvalue that has type other than cv void, a temporary object is materialized; see [expr.context].
— end note
 ]
6
#
Whenever a glvalue appears as an operand of an operator that expects a prvalue for that operand, the lvalue-to-rvalue, array-to-pointer, or function-to-pointer standard conversions are applied to convert the expression to a prvalue.
[ Note
:
An attempt to bind an rvalue reference to an lvalue is not such a context; see [dcl.init.ref].
— end note
 ]
[ Note
:
Because cv-qualifiers are removed from the type of an expression of non-class type when the expression is converted to a prvalue, an lvalue of type const int can, for example, be used where a prvalue of type int is required.
— end note
 ]
[ Note
:
There are no prvalue bit-fields; if a bit-field is converted to a prvalue ([conv.lval]), a prvalue of the type of the bit-field is created, which might then be promoted ([conv.prom]).
— end note
 ]
7
#
Whenever a prvalue appears as an operand of an operator that expects a glvalue for that operand, the temporary materialization conversion is applied to convert the expression to an xvalue.
8
#
The discussion of reference initialization in [dcl.init.ref] and of temporaries in [class.temporary] indicates the behavior of lvalues and rvalues in other significant contexts.
9
#
Unless otherwise indicated ([dcl.type.simple]), a prvalue shall always have complete type or the void type; if it has a class type or (possibly multi-dimensional) array of class type, that class shall not be an abstract class ([class.abstract]).
A glvalue shall not have type cv void.
[ Note
:
A glvalue may have complete or incomplete non-void type.
Class and array prvalues can have cv-qualified types; other prvalues always have cv-unqualified types.
— end note
 ]
10
#
An lvalue is modifiable unless its type is const-qualified or is a function type.
[ Note
:
A program that attempts to modify an object through a nonmodifiable lvalue or through an rvalue is ill-formed ([expr.ass], [expr.post.incr], [expr.pre.incr]).
— end note
 ]
11
#
If a program attempts to access ([defns.access]) the stored value of an object through a glvalue whose type is not similar ([conv.qual]) to one of the following types the behavior is undefined:51
  • (11.1)
    the dynamic type of the object,
  • (11.2)
    a type that is the signed or unsigned type corresponding to the dynamic type of the object, or
  • (11.3)
    a char, unsigned char, or std​::​byte type.
If a program invokes a defaulted copy/move constructor or copy/move assignment operator for a union of type U with a glvalue argument that does not denote an object of type cv U within its lifetime, the behavior is undefined.
[ Note
:
Unlike in C, C++ has no accesses of class type.
— end note
 ]
51)
The intent of this list is to specify those circumstances in which an object may or may not be aliased.
⮥

7.2.2 Type [expr.type]

1
#
If an expression initially has the type “reference to T” ([dcl.ref], [dcl.init.ref]), the type is adjusted to T prior to any further analysis.
The expression designates the object or function denoted by the reference, and the expression is an lvalue or an xvalue, depending on the expression.
[ Note
:
Before the lifetime of the reference has started or after it has ended, the behavior is undefined (see [basic.life]).
— end note
 ]
2
#
If a prvalue initially has the type “cv T”, where T is a cv-unqualified non-class, non-array type, the type of the expression is adjusted to T prior to any further analysis.
3
#
The composite pointer type of two operands p1 and p2 having types T1 and T2, respectively, where at least one is a pointer or pointer-to-member type or std​::​nullptr_­t, is:
  • (3.1)
    if both p1 and p2 are null pointer constants, std​::​nullptr_­t;
  • (3.2)
    if either p1 or p2 is a null pointer constant, T2 or T1, respectively;
  • (3.3)
    if T1 or T2 is “pointer to cv1 void” and the other type is “pointer to cv2 T”, where T is an object type or void, “pointer to cv12 void”, where cv12 is the union of cv1 and cv2;
  • (3.4)
    if T1 or T2 is “pointer to noexcept function” and the other type is “pointer to function”, where the function types are otherwise the same, “pointer to function”;
  • (3.5)
    if T1 is “pointer to cv1 C1” and T2 is “pointer to cv2 C2”, where C1 is reference-related to C2 or C2 is reference-related to C1, the cv-combined type ([conv.qual]) of T1 and T2 or the cv-combined type of T2 and T1, respectively;
  • (3.6)
    if T1 or T2 is “pointer to member of C1 of type function”, the other type is “pointer to member of C2 of type noexcept function”, and C1 is reference-related to C2 or C2 is reference-related to C1 ([dcl.init.ref]), where the function types are otherwise the same, “pointer to member of C2 of type function” or “pointer to member of C1 of type function”, respectively;
  • (3.7)
    if T1 is “pointer to member of C1 of type cv1 U” and T2 is “pointer to member of C2 of type cv2 U”, for some non-function type U, where C1 is reference-related to C2 or C2 is reference-related to C1 ([dcl.init.ref]), the cv-combined type of T2 and T1 or the cv-combined type of T1 and T2, respectively;
  • (3.8)
    if T1 and T2 are similar types, the cv-combined type of T1 and T2;
  • (3.9)
    otherwise, a program that necessitates the determination of a composite pointer type is ill-formed.
[ Example
: 
typedef void *p;
typedef const int *q;
typedef int **pi;
typedef const int **pci;
The composite pointer type of p and q is “pointer to const void”; the composite pointer type of pi and pci is “pointer to const pointer to const int”.
— end example
 ]

7.2.3 Context dependence [expr.context]

1
#
An unevaluated operand is not evaluated.
[ Note
:
In an unevaluated operand, a non-static class member may be named ([expr.prim.id]) and naming of objects or functions does not, by itself, require that a definition be provided ([basic.def.odr]).
An unevaluated operand is considered a full-expression.
— end note
 ]
2
#
In some contexts, an expression only appears for its side effects.
Such an expression is called a discarded-value expression.
The array-to-pointer and function-to-pointer standard conversions are not applied.
The lvalue-to-rvalue conversion is applied if and only if the expression is a glvalue of volatile-qualified type and it is one of the following:
[ Note
:
Using an overloaded operator causes a function call; the above covers only operators with built-in meaning.
— end note
 ]
If the (possibly converted) expression is a prvalue, the temporary materialization conversion is applied.
[ Note
:
If the expression is an lvalue of class type, it must have a volatile copy constructor to initialize the temporary object that is the result object of the lvalue-to-rvalue conversion.
— end note
 ]
The glvalue expression is evaluated and its value is discarded.